
Class -X^i 

Book ■ - 

Copyright N° 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



SlEBEL'S 

Manual and Record Book 



FOR 



BAKERS AND MILLERS 



Comprising a Concise Yet Comprehensive Treatise on Modern Baking, 

as Also Scientific Information Important to the Baker and 

Miller, Together With a Collection in Convenient 

Form of Bread and Cake Formulae and Forms 

for Maintaining Bakeshop Records. 



FIRST EDITION 



CHICAGO 
1917 



edited and published 

• BY THE 

Siebel Institute of Technology 



\o 



COPYRIGHT 1917 
BY 

Siebei, Institute of Technology 

Printed in the United States of America 
All Rights Reserved 



AUG 10 



13(7 ^O , 



° 



©CI.A470608 



Foreword. 



Considering that neither efforts nor expense have been 
spared in time, study, and original investigation so as to make 
this Manual a credit to the industries which it represents, as 
indeed also to the Institute itself, we may be permitted to 
transgress from the usual practice and enlarge somewhat 
more upon its scope. 

In the compilation of the data presented in the following 
pages, the fact was not overlooked that this manual as the name 
correctly indicates, was to serve as a ready and immediate 
reference book and at the same time we have constantly 
borne in mind the dire necessity of presenting in a brief, yet 
concise form the more pertinent elementary principles of the 
sciences involved. 

More space has been devoted to some subjects than to 
others, but this is only true in such instances where brevity 
might entail an incorrect understanding, which we aim to 
avoid more particularly so "where relating to the application of 
science to practice. 

Referring again to the compilation of the data it must be 
added that it has been found more expedient to re-arrange the 
same on a somewhat different plan than what had originally 
been anticipated, as was indicated by the sample copy of the 
table of contents which was issued before the matter had all 
gone to press. 

We are convinced that a perusal of the Manual will make 
this readily evident, as also the further fact that only by this 
change were we able to add other chapters, and at the same 
time present the matter in a systematic manner. 

in 



While the first chapter treats on milling exclusively, it 
must not be overlooked that the same is also important to the 
baker in the same measure, as the contents of the following 
chapters are equally pertinent to the miller. 

This fact will become readily apparent when referring to 
the subject of Flour under Baking Materials, Chapter II, 
Flour Analysis, Chapter V, and more particularly so in the 
chapters relating to Chemistry, Physics, Microscopy, and 
Mensuration, containing, as they do, what might be termed 
the meat of these subjects in a concrete and what is especially 
important definite manner. 

Chapter II of this Manual brings a condensed yet compre- 
hensive discussion of baking materials, primarily flour and 
flour blending, but also of the various other materials and 
their composition including yeast foods and bread improvers, 
and is followed in Chapter III by a more extensive and com- 
plete discussion of the technology of baking, including sponge 
and straight dough processes and fermentation as also the 
proofing, panning and baking of bread, a few special points of 
practical importance being discussed in Chapter IV. 

The Manual suggests a systematic and accurate control of 
all the conditions that enter into consideration, at the same 
time giving a treatise on methods such as are mentioned in no 
other volume. 

"Time is Money" is one of the maxims of modern indus- 
trial life. This Manual will be found a time-saver, owing to its 
condensed arrangement of subjects. It relieves the man in 
charge of the necessity of consulting three or four other books, 
in order to be posted, while giving him at the same time, a 
complete knowledge and control of all the details of operation. 
The fundamental principle of modern successful business 
methods is to reduce the cost of manufacture to a minimum, 
without impairing the quality of the product or- to produce 
a better article without increased cost in manufacture. With 
that in mind we have also added a book of records such that 
if properly adhered to forms an accurate and concise outline 
of the details of the entire operation of the Bake-shop, and from 
a careful perusal and analysis of such a completed report, the 
Baker is able to determine the optimum conditions for nianu- 

IV 



facture. From the reports, lie may readily see the influence 
of different ingredients that enter into his formula, of the 
effect of temperature, humidity and pressure and time, etc., 
on fermentation and that upon the quality of the loaf. From 
these observations he is enabled to have a complete and accu- 
rate control and knowledge of his product both as to proper 
conditions for manufacture and as to the cost of the product. 

AVe wish to point out and emphasize the convenient form 
in which the formulas for different cakes and bread are intro- 
duced and contained. The charts are so arranged that the 
Baker has ready access to the many formulas, each of which 
has proven to be an excellent one. Some of the formulas are 
standard ones, but many are new and are included inas- 
much as after a thorough trial they have given excellent 
products: 

As already stated the writing and compilation of the mate- 
rial for such a book as this has necessitated arduous effort on 
our part in an endeavor to reduce the errata to a minimum. 
In spite of our diligence, however, errors may have crept in, 
and the Industry will confer a favor upon the Institute by 
bringing them to our attention. Furthermore, any suggestions 
as to the arrangement or otherwise, will be welcomed so that 
we may make the necessary changes in subsequent editions. 

We are indebted to the individual members of the Faculty 
whose arduous devotion has made this Book possible, and we 
feel that the result of their efforts merits the commendation 
of the members of the Baking and Milling Industry to whose 
judgment this Book is confidently submitted. 

Very respectfully, 
SIEBEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. 



Table of Contents. 



DISCOURSE ON MODERN MILLING AND BAKING 
TECHNOLOGY AND BAKING MATERIALS. 

Introduction. 

CHAPTER I. 
Milling Technology. 

Pages 3- 11 

Characteristics and Properties of Wheat — wheat the chief material 
for the milling of flour — differences in wheat — structure of wheat berry 

varying and average composition of wheat — varieties of wheat — hard 

Spring wheat — hard Winter wheat — soft Winter wheat — white wheat — 
Durum wheat. 

Treatment of Wheat Preceding Milling — blending of wheat — separ- 
ating — scouring — conditioning — second scouring. 

Milling of wheat — break rolls — reduction rolls — scalpers and sifters 
— graders — principle of milling — middlings — reduction of middlings — 
combining different mill streams. 

Products obtained — different grades of flour — patent flour — clear — 
straight flour — differences in the same grade of flour — gluten, ash, color — 
bleaching of flour — use of offals — cattle, horse and chicken feed — special 
feeds. 

CHAPTER II. 

Baking Materials. 

Pages 12—46 

Flour — kinds of flour on market — hard Spring wheat flour — hard 
Winter wheat flour — soft Winter wheat flour — Durum wheat flour — effect 
of climatic conditions on composition — Seasonal variations — comparison 
of three patent flours — Grades of flour (Patent, straight, etc.) — Standards 
suggested by U. S. Department of Agriculture — First patent 70% — 
second patent — analysis and comparison of different grades — discussion 
of analysis — detection of poorer grades — storage of flour — effect of aging 
— blending of flour — principal reasons — kinds of flour for blending — 
knowledge of flour necessary for scientific blending — bleaching of flour — 
demand for white flour and bread — methods of bleaching — Nitrogen- 

VII 



Peroxide method — effect on hard and soft wheat flour — bleaching corres- 
ponding to quick aging — bleaching of new flour — objections to bleaching 
- — bleached flour not necessarily inferior. 

Water — Importance of water in baking recently recognized — good 
drinking water for bread-making — hard and soft water — temporary and 
permanent hardness — effect of hardness on gluten and fermentation — ef- 
fect of soft water — alkaline water — composition of different waters. 

Sugar — carbohydrates — Sucrose or cane sugar — beet sugar — purity — 
raw sugar — granulated — brown sugar — effect of each in fermentation — 
maple sugar — syrups — molasses — dextrose or corn sugar — glucose — com- 
position of commercial corn sugars — fermentability — maltose or malt 
sugar — activates fermentation — effect on loaf — milk sugar — relation of 
sugars to fermentation. 

Salt — kinds of salt — use for flavor — use as a governor in fermentation 
— salt and lactic acid fermentation — effect of salt in dough — analysis of 
different samples of salt. 

Yeast — functions of yeast — development of enzymes — Invertase — 
Maltase — Diastase — Protease — their effect — proper food for development 
— various kinds of yeast — barm or stock yeast — dry yeast — pure culture 
yeast — compressed yeast — manufacture — propagation — average composi- 
tion of compressed yeast — analysis of different compressed yeasts — adul- 
terations. 

Shortening — lard — leaf lard — neutral lard — Oleomargarine — com- 
pounds — butter — composition of butter — renovated butter — use of fats in 
baking — oils — rancidity — precautions to be used — methods of incorporat- 
ing fats into the mix — effect of shortening in baking. 

Bread improvers and Yeast foods — definition — sugar and malt ex- 
tract as yeast food — manufacture of malt extract — action of malt — en- 
zymes— diastatic power — analysis of malt extract — activity of diastase at 
temperature of fermentation, in proof box and in oven — action of peptase 
on gluten in dough — pliable and elastic gluten — use of malt extract — pre- 
cautions — advantages through use of malt — malt flour — malt extract an 
excellent yeast food and improver — milk — whole — skimmed — analysis of 
fresh whole and skimmed milk — fat and total milk solids — important con- 
stituents — standards — condensed milk — sweetened and unsweetened — 
analysis of condensed milk — milk powder — dried milk — adulteration of 
milk — analysis of various milks — use of milk in baking — quality and 
flavor of loaf improved — richness of loaf. 



CHAPTER III. 

Baking Technology. 

Pages 46 — 60 

Making of the Dough — choice of method to accord with individual 
conditions — sponge dough process, old system — short sponge — long sponge 
— batter sponge — fermentation and development of gluten — advantages 

VIII 



of sponge — flavor of sponge bread — method of treatment — theory of 
straight dough process — mixing — regulation of fermentation — advantages 
— flavor of straight dough bread — quality of loaf produced — " Sauer 
Teig ' ' — antiquated method — foreign infection — disadvantages — inferior- 
ity. 

Fermentation — importance of control of fermentation — kinds of fer- 
mentation — alcoholic fermentation — lactic acid fermentation — butyric 
and acetic acid fermentation — avoidance of foreign fermentation — vis- 
cous fermentation — "rope" — infection of bakeshop by rope — "first aid" 
methods in event of rope — necessity of expert services to locate and er- 
adicate source of infection — humidity — relative humidity — use of hygro- 
meter — proper humidity for bakery — humidity on sultry summer days — 
effect of variation in humidity on fermentation — formation of crust — 
advantage in control of humidity — atmospheric pressure — barometer — 
effect of pressure on fermentation — change in formula to correspond to 
humidity and pressure. 

Mechanical Factors that affect Fermentation — slack and stiff doughs 
— "punching" or "cutting over" — timing "First Cut" — relation to 
total period of fermentation — first cut three-fifths of total period of fer- 
mentation — over-ripe dough rather than not — new flour and enzymatic 
activity — treatment of new flour to effect normal fermentation. 

Panning and Proofing — proofing an important stage — relation of im- 
proper proofing to quality of loaf — general method of handling doughs — 
the divider — the Brake roll — necessity and advantage of a Brake — 
"rounding up" or "balling- up" — "Bleeding" ends of dough — first 
proof — why necessary — moulding of loaf — machine moulding — proof box 
— temperature — heated by live steam — exposure of loaves to cold — re- 
tarding fermentation and proof — time for proper proof — causes — effect — 
over proofing — quick and slow oven — split loaf — how made. 

Baking— oven — temperature and time for baking — variation in oven 
temperature — flash heat — oven bottom heat — steam in oven — low and 
high pressure steam — cooling of bread. 



CHAPTEE IV. 
General Discussion. 

Pages 61 — 67 

Scoring of bread — method of scoring — score card — general appear- 
ance — color — texture — grain — flavor — volume of loaf. 

Holes in bread — several causes for holes — over-fermentation — under 
fermented dough — improper mixing of sponge and dough — poor moulding 
— holes prevented by proper manipulation. 

Degree of Fineness of flour and its effect upon its Composition and 
Baking quality — gritty or ' ' sharp ' ' flour — soft flour — uniformity of gran- 
ulation — recent experiments — five fractions seperated — loaves baked 
from these five fractions — finest flour not always the best flour. 

IX 



Flour substitutes — potato, corn and rice flour — potato, corn and rice 
starch — cotton seed meal — peanut meal — Soy-bean meal — rice flour for 
pastry and cakes — corn flakes — increase in absorption — malt extract in 
connection with corn flakes — saving of sugar and yeast. 



CHAPTEE V. 
Analysis of Flour. 

Pages 68 — 76 

Value of chemical analysis — Methods of analysis — determination of 
moisture — ash — color — absorption — dry gluten — protein — acidity — gliadin 
— expansion — fermenting period — quality of gluten — stability. 

Baking test — method recommended — interpretation of results — rel- 
ative value of each determination — comparison of sample with standard. 

Laboratory outfit — general apparatus — additional apparatus for 
bakers — additional apparatus for millers — reagents. 



BREAD AND CAKE FORMULAS. 



Introduction. 



Pages 



Bread Formulas (Straight Dough). 

Water and Milk Bolls (Straight Dough). 

Counter Mixed Cakes. 

Sponge Goods and Other Cakes. 

Layer Cakes. 

Pound and Fruit Cakes. 

Snaps — Bars. 

Small Fancy Mixed Cakes. 

Sugar Cakes. 



Chart 


I. 


Chart 


II. 


Chart 


III. 


Chart 


IV. 


Chart 


V. 


Chart 


VI. 


Chart 


VII. 


Chart 


VIII. 


Chart 


IX. 



RECORDS FOR THE BAKE SHOP. 



Introduction. 



Pages 



Eecord I. Sponging-Eoom Eecord. 

Eecord II. Doughing-Eoom Eecord. 

Eecord III. Fermenting-Eoom Eecord. 

Eecord IV. Bench Eecord. 

Eecord V. Store-Eoom Eecord. 



SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DATA. 

Introduction. 

CHAPTER VI. 
Physics. 

Pages 98—103 

Matter and Force — states of aggregation — cohesion — adhesion — molar 
attraction — weight and specific weight — picnometer — hydrometer — sac- 
charometer — hydraulic pressure — air pressure — barometer. 

Heat and Temperature — thermometer — Fahrenheit, Centigrade and 
Reaumur graduation — pyrometer — heat unit, B.T.U. — specific heat — melt- 
ing and boiling — latent heat of melting and of vaporization — effect of 
pressure on boiling. 

Hygrometry — humidity of air — saturated air — degree of humidity. 

CHAPTER VII. 
Chemistry. 

Pages 103 — 113 

General Chemistry — chemical and physical change — elements — com- 
pounds — mixtures — atoms and molecules — chemical symbols — chemical 
formula — atomic weight — chemical affinity — valence or atomicity — uni- 
valent — bivalent and trivalent. 

Inorganic Chemistry — metals — metalloids — alkalis and acids — salts — 
acid salts — sulphates, chlorides, etc. — air — oxydation and combustion — 
water — chemically pure water — hard and soft water — alkaline water. 

Organic Chemistry — hydrocarbons — alcohols — methyl-, ethyl-, amyl- 
alcohol — glycerine — organic acids — acetic acid — butyric, palmitic and 
stearic acid — lactic acid — esters — fats and oils — carbohydrates — cellulose 
— starch — sugars — sucrose — maltose — lactose — dextrose — levulose — dext- 
rine — proteins — glutenin — gliadin — proteoses — peptones — amids and 
amino-acids — enzymes — Cytase — Diastase — Invertase — Maltase — Zymase. 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Microscopy and Micro-Organisms. 

Pages 114 — 122 

Use of the Microscope — construction of microscope — objective — ocular 
other parts — structure of cereals — identification of starches. 

Micro-Organisms — the cell — protoplasm — cell wall — fission, sporula- 
tion and budding — infection — fermentation — putrefaction — fungi — 
moulding — yeast — cultured yeast — wild yeast — bacteria — bacilli — cocci. 

XI 



Pure Yeast Culture — isolation of cell — tests for purity 1 — culture media 
— method of culture — moist chamber — Pasteur flask — pure yeast appar- 
atus. 

CHAPTER IX. 
Refrigeration. 

Pages 122 — 124 

Methods of producing refrigeration — refrigerating liquids — amount 
of refrigeration obtainable — ton of refrigeration — refrigerating systems 
— compression system — absorption system — liquid receiver — expansion 
valve — refrigerator — compressor — condensor — absorber — exchanger — gen- 
erator — quantity of refrigeration required — piping required. 



CHAPTER X. 
Electricity. 

Pages 125—128 

Magnetism — natural magnet — permanent magnet — electro magnet — 
electric pressure — ways of producing voltage — resistance — current — 
Ohm's Law — electric power — watt — series connection — parallel or mul- 
tiple connection — resistance of electric circuits — dynamos — motors — shunt 
and series dynamos — compound machine — direct current — alternating 
current — cycle — primary batteries. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Figuring in the Bake Shop. 

Pages 129—131 

Quantity of water required for dough — how many loaves obtained 
from 1 bbl. of flour — material required for a definite number of loaves — 
total cost of material — cost of material for 100 loaves — selling price of 
100 loaves — weight of a loaf at which to be scaled off for a certain selling 
price — temperature of water for a mix — interest on a loan — discount on 
a bill — amount payable on a bill allowing discount — compound discount. 



CHAPTER XII. 
Mensuration. 

Pages 132—136 

Measuring areas — square — rectangle — triangle — polygon — irregular 
figure — circle — circumference and area — measuring of solids — cube — rect- 
angular prism — irregular prism — cylinder — pyramid — cone — frustum of 
cone — sphere — hemisphere. 

XII 



APPENDIX. 
Tables. 

Pages 137 — 142 

Measures and weights, U. S. and Metric system — comparison of U. 
S. and Metric units — Baume degrees and specific gravity — specific gravity 
and strength of sugar solutions — comparison of thermometer scales — de- 
gree of humidity. 

Dictionary and Definitions of Technical Terms. 

Pages 143 — 151 



PLATES. 

Pages 153 — 173 

No. 1. Microscope, coverglasses and Petri dish. 

" 2. Wheat berry and transverse section of wheat berry (magn.). 

" 3. Longitudinal section of wheat berry (magn.). 

" 4. Starches — (wheat, rye, barley, corn, rice and potatoes). 

" 5. Moulds — (aspergillus glaucus — pencillium glaucum — botrytis 
cinerea — oidium lactis — mucor racemosus — mucor circinelloides. 

" 6. Yeast cells — compressed yeast (magn.). 

" 7. Bacteria — (Sarcina maxima — ped. acidi lactici — viscous ferment 
— bact. acetici — lactic ferment — bact. lactis — bact. butyricum — 
bact. subtilis — bact. ulna — bact. leptothrix — spir. tenue — spir. 
undula). 

" 8. Drop culture slide — Pasteur flask — moist chamber. 

" 9. Pure yeast apparatus (Lindner). 

" 10. Mensuration (square — rectangle — triangle — polygon — irregular 
figure — circle — cube — rectangular prism — irregular prism — cyl- 
inder — pyramid — cone — frustum of cone — sphere — hemisphere). 



GENERAL INDEX. 

Pages 175 — 189 



ADVERTISEMENT SECTION. 

Pages I— XXXII 

Preface — Advertisements — Alphabetical index to advertisers — Classi- 
fied index to advertisers. 



XIII 



DISCOURSE ON MODERN MILLING AND BAKING 
TECHNOLOGY AND BAKING MATERIALS. 



Introduction. 

The progress that has been manifested in the Milling and 
Baking Industry in. the last few years is indicative of the 
scientific study of the conditions that enter into and effect 
these industries, and only since science has entered into these 
fields has any real progress been made. 

Of the two, that of Milling has certainly been the most 
alert to the advantages to be derived by the application of 
Science to Practice, as is so well evidenced by the completely 
equipped laboratories under the guidance of thoroughly com- 
petent chemists which form an important unit of the great 
flour mills of this >country. Yet, in spite of this, the number 
of mills that apply technical control to their operation is 
exceedingly small as compared to the total number of fairly 
large sized mills in operation. 

This is probably explained in that the average mill owner 
or operator, did either not have the opportunity of becoming 
acquainted, that is understandingly so, with the principles of 
the sciences upon which his practices are based, or else that he 
had gathered the impression that the chemistry, physics, etc., 
required in milling, differed from that required in other in- 
dustries. 

It is for these reasons that we solicit both the mill owner 
and operator, that in addition to such study as they may give 
to Chapter I, which is confined to Milling, they also give equal, 
if indeed not greater, attention to the thorough treament of 
flour in Chapter II under baking materials, and again Chap- 
ter V under analysis of flours and more especially to such 
chapters which relate in a concise and instructive manner to 
the subjects of chemistry, physics and microscopy. 



Bread making is a craft dating back to earliest history — 
and our records show that in the year 150 B. C. the city of 
Rome had municipal inspection of the bakeries which were 
then producing bread using a "sponge" system and sour 
dough (Sauerteig). This system had been little changed until 
within comparative recent years through the advent of com- 
pressed yeast which was the result of years of careful scientific 
research. 

Simultaneously came chemistry and physics into the In- 
dustry and have shown the Baker that temperature and pres- 
sure have their effect on the dough, that humidity influences 
the fermentation, that there is an optimum temperature at 
which dough should be maintained, etc. It has gone farther 
than demonstrating the existence of these varying factors — it 
has explained them and has given the Baker methods by which 
he may control them. The extent to which the various sug- 
gestions of science have been followed indicates closely and 
accurately the success of the Baker. The Baker with a tech- 
nical education immediately recognizes that flour may be pur- 
chased to advantage through a chemical analysis, that scienti- 
fic blending of flours produces flour of desired quality, and 
that different procedures in mixing of doughs produce char- 
acteristic results in the baked loaf, and so on. 

In the following chapters, these several varying factors 
and phases of baking will be developed completely, showing 
the effect of using different kinds of flour, different methods 
of mixing doughs and results to be looked for in using the 
several bread improvers and yeast foods. 



CHAPTER I. 
Milling Technology.* 

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF WHEAT. 

Wheat for the Milling of Flour. 

Among the countless varieties of cereals a rather large 
number are more or less adaptable for the milling of flour; 
however, the cereal wheat stands out foremost among these 
for milling purposes, not alone in that it yields a large per- 
centage of flour, but also that the flour milled therefrom pro- 
duces at the same time a palatable and highly nutritious loaf 
of bread which is good in color and fine in texture. 

Flour is also milled from rye and other cereals such as corn 
and even potato flour can be and indeed is employed in the 
making of bread and other baked food ; nevertheless neither one 
of these flours can replace wheat flour fully, so that in this 
sense they can at the most be considered only as adjuncts to 
wheat which for centuries has been the most universally used 
flour yielding cereal of the world. 

Differences in Wheat. 

Wheat like many other plants is cultivated in a great num- 
ber of recognized varieties which differ morphologically as 
well as chemically, at least insofar as they contain varying per- 
centages of the different substances making up the wheat 
berry, although the same are in general common to all cereals. 

A further difference between these different kinds of wheat 
is particularly to be found in their cultivation which is largely 
dependent on the respective climatic conditions, since certain 
varieties cannot withstand the severe cold prevailing during 
the winter season in some parts of the country, and therefore 
must be planted in spring, whereas others are sown in fall. 

These conditions again having an effect upon the consti- 
tuents of the wheat berry, it becomes at once evident that the 
different kinds of wheat must produce flours possessing en- 
tirely different properties, which is enlarged upon in Chap- 
ter II. 



* See also flour, Chapter II and flour analysis, Chapter V. 

3 



Structure and Composition of Wheat Berry. 

If a section of a wheat berry is placed under a magnifying 
glass, it will be observed that the same does not present a 
homogeneous appearance, but rather shows to consist of layers 
of different materials. (See Plates II and III.) 

The first or outer layer is the cuticle or epidermis, followed 
by two other strata, consisting of long and round cells and 
termed epicarp and endoearp respectively. 

Next follows a thin layer, the testa, containing the color- 
ing matter of the skin of the grain, and it is these four layers 
together which form the entire coating or skin enveloping the 
endosperm or mealy part of the grain, and which are generally 
designated as bran. 

The inner and greatest part of the berry is the endosperm, 
of which the layer immediately beneath the skin or bran con- 
sists of large and practically cubical cells, called aleurone 
cells containing chiefly protein (not gluten), a little fat and 
mineral salts, while the longer and larger cells filling up the 
central part of the endosperm contain starch granules enclosed 
in a thin cellular wall and surrounded by gluten. 

At the lower end of the grain the germ or embryo is 
located, from which the new plant will grow if the berry 
commences to germinate after being planted or sown in the 
ground. 

From this it is to be observed that not alone the percentage 
of the various substances making up the whole wheat berry 
will be very uneven, but that this is also true of their distribu- 
tion in the grain. In general it can be said that the bran con- 
sists almost entirely of cellulose, coloring matter and mineral 
salts, the endosperm contains chiefly starch and gluten, as also 
other protein in the aleurone cells, but very little cellulose, 
while the germ is filled with fat, some protein and mineral mat- 
ter, but is practically free of starch. Starch and protein pos- 
sess nutritive value and this is to a certain measure also true 
of the mineral salts; cellulose, however, being indigestible for 
the human system, is of no value as a food. 

Therefore to grind the wheat into flour of the highest qual- 
ity a two-fold object must be attained; aside of reducing the 
contents of the wheat berry into an impalpable powder, the 



particles of germ, bran and endosperm must be separated at 
the same time as much as possible, and it is chiefly for this sec- 
ond reason that the modern process of milling has necessarily 
become a rather elaborate one, making it more and more desir- 
able, if indeed not imperative, for the miller to support his 
practical experience with a thorough scientific training. 

As already indicated, the composition of wheat varies con- 
siderably with the different varieties, at least as far as the 
percentage of the various constituents is concerned, the fol- 
lowing table must therefore be understood to give only the 
typical composition of an average sample of wheat. 

Average Composition of Wheat. 

Water 13.5% 

Starch _ 679'' 

Protein 12 5" 

Cellulose (fibre) 2.6 " 

Fat ' iju 

Mineral salts (ash) 1.8 " 

Varieties of Wheat. 

Although more than 200 different types and varieties of 
wheat are known and have been named, yet for all practical 
purposes a classification into four or five general, large groups 
or classes will suffice to insure an understanding of the essen- 
tial characteristic differences of these types as are grown in 
this country, as well as of the flours milled therefrom. 

1. In the northern states, Minnesota, the Dakotas, North- 
ern Wisconsin, Iowa and Nebraska, where the climate is rather 
cold in winter, hard Spring wheat is grown. It is of red color 
and contains in the average the highest percentage of gluten, 
11 to 16%, making a strong flour. 

2. In the middle states between the Mississippi River and 
the Rocky Mountains, south of Minnesota and the Dakotas, 
hard Winter wheat varieties are prevalent. They are like the 
Spring wheats of red color, but somewhat lower in gluten, 9 
to 11%, and yield fairly strong flours. 

3. In the central and Atlantic states, varieties known as 
soft Winter wheat are chiefly grown. They are generally much 
lighter in color, from amber to only a light red, and character- 

5 



ized by the much lower percentage of gluten, which amounts 
in the average to 6 to 9%, in consequence of which these wheats 
will yield weak flours, but of good color. 

4. Very light colored wheat, so called white wheat which 
is also soft and rich in starch is grown on the Pacific coast 
and on the western slope of the Eocky Mountains. Since 
these wheats contain the lowest percentage of gluten of all 
varieties, from 4 to 7%, the flour made from these types is like 
that from the soft Winter wheats, weak but rich in starch. 

5. A special variety of hard and glassy wheat of yellow 
color, known as Durum wheat is grown in some southern 
states, as also in Montana. The same is very high in gluten, 
14 to 17% ; however, the gluten is very hard and by reason of 
its highly creamy color, flour made from this wheat is litttle 
used for bread making ; it is, however, largely employed for the 
manufacture of maccaronis and noodles. 

TREATMENT OF WHEAT PRECEDING MILLING. 

Blending of Wheat. 

Differences similar to those with reference to gluten are 
to be observed in the different varieties of wheat also with 
reference to other properties of the flour made therefrom, most 
notably in the color, however, they do not necessarily run 
parallel. 

In consequence thereof the best grades of flour are not 
obtained by milling only one definite variety or kind of wheat, 
which is generally also excluded for practical reasons, but 
rather by employing a mixture of different varieties, blended 
in such a way, that, for example, the excess of gluten In the 
one makes up the deficiency of this substance in the other, 
while possibly the better color of the second wheat will im- 
prove the somewhat pooreV color of the first. 

Hence, the blending of wheat is a necessity and it is only 
by a judicious application of this procedure that a product of 
uniformly high quality can be obtained not alone during one 
season but for years, if this blending is done rationally, and 
proper consideration is given to the characteristics of the 
varieties to be used for this purpose. 



Cleaning 1 , Scouring and Tempering" of Wheat. 

Wheat as it arrives at the mill contains considerable for- 
eign matter, seeds, dirt, etc., which must be fully removed by 
a thorough cleaning and grading process and the more thor- 
oughly this is done the greater will be its influence upon the 
quality of the final product, a fact which should not be under- 
estimated. 

It is true not all mills do require nor do they use the same 
machinery or appliances for this purpose ; nevertheless certain 
machines must be employed in every mill. 

After the preliminary cleaning of the wheat in the ware- 
house by passing through a separator which is sometimes con- 
nected with a scouring machine, it undergoes its first treat- 
ment in the mill by passing through the mill separator of which 
in some mills two or even three are employed for this purpose. 

This serves to remove such foreign substances as strings, 
stones, corn cobs, pieces of wood, paper, short straw, but also 
shrunken and broken wheat grains, barley, oats, beans, larger 
seeds, dust, chaff and etc. 

From the separator the wheat passes to the scourer, in 
which by mechanical agitation impurities still clinging to the 
wheat kernel are loosened, the fine hairs at the end of the 
berries are broken off as is also a portion of the outer skin and 
any chaff which had not been removed in the separator. 

The wheat should next undergo a special treatment desig- 
nated as tempering or conditioning, which is performed in 
what is known as the tempering bin. 

At this stage the wheat receives an addition of water vary- 
ing from 1 to 4%, depending upon the dryness and hardness 
of the wheat; the water which is mixed very thoroughly has 
the effect not only to loosen any dirt which had been clinging 
to the kernels so persistently as to resist previous scouring, 
but also toughens the bran, so that in grinding it will come off 
in large flakes, instead of in fine powdery form as would 
otherwise be true by reason of its natural brittleness. 

The proper tempering of wheat is attained by allowing it 
to remain in the bin for quite some time, generally from 4 to 
7 hours, depending as stated upon the condition of the wheat. 



The wheat is then subjected to a second scouring' which re- 
moves whatever has been loosened in the conditioning stage 
and which, as it were, puts the final touches on the wheat be- 
fore it is ready for the milling process proper. 

MILLING OF WHEAT. 

The wheat having been thoroughly cleaned by the separat- 
ing, cleaning and scouring process then passes to the mills. 

Here it is reduced to flour, but at the same time all those 
parts of the berry which are undesirable in the flour, bran and 
germ, are removed. Since this, however, can never be accom- 
plished by grinding the wheat directly into flour but only by a 
rather gradual reduction, so a series of mills and scalpers and 
graders or sifters must be employed for this purpose, tne num- 
ber of which depends on both the capacity of the mill as also 
the different grades of flour that are to be made. 

The rolls used for this purpose in sets of two, are of two 
different types : the one corrugated, called break rolls, the 
others smooth and called reduction rolls. 

Even small mills should have at least three sets of break 
rolls and five sets of reduction rolls, while large mills and any 
mill making a number of different grades of flour must have 
more, say five or six breaks and from nine to thirteen sets of 
reduction rolls and a corresponding number of sifters and 
purifiers. 

A high grade flour and a good yield at the same time can 
only be obtained if the bran and germ is separated as fully as 
possibly from the mealy part of the endosperm ; hence, the 
principle to be strictly observed in milling, is to break up the 
wheat berry by the first break only into very large particles, 
making at this stage as little flour as possible, but producing 
rather a large percentage of coarse and mealy middlings. 

It is then the gradual reduction by means of the reduction 
rolls of these middlings, after they had been scalped and 
graded by properly selected sifters which will result in flours 
of the highest quality, generally designated as "patent 
flours." 



In this grade of flour are to be combined only those mill 
streams which are obtained from the best middlings, while the 
balance of the streams are included in the "clear" grades. 

For "straight" flours no such selections of the different 
mill streams is required, but they are all combined, under- 
standing, of course, that the bran and the very last flour that 
can be obtained from the same, the "low grade," are always 
separated. 

PRODUCTS OBTAINED. 

Different Grades of Flour.* 

From the foregoing, it appears that the different grades of 
flour must show notable differences in their composition, as 
particularly manifested in their respective percentage of 
gluten and ash, as also in their color. 

The "patent" flours, chiefly made from the more central 
parts of the endosperm are low in gluten and ash, but they 
will possess the best color. 

The "clear" flours on the other side are highest in gluten 
and ash, and since they contain also more particles of bran 
their color will be darkest, if we do not include in here the 
"low grade" flours, which indeed do not come into considera- 
tion for bread making. 

The "straight" flours stand, as it were, between the 
"patents" and the "clears," that is, they are higher in gluten 
and ash than the patents, but lower than the clears, and the 
same is true of their color. 

This is shown more in detail in the comparative analysis of 
these flours, given in Chapter II, under the heading of flour. 

But even between different flours representing the same 
grade, for example between a number of "patent" flours, 
again characteristic differences are to be observed, although 
these flours might have been milled from the same wheat, 
insofar the percentage of endosperm particles or middlings, 
included in the respective flour as compared with the total 



See also grades of flour, Chapter II. 



amount of flour obtainable, will influence percentage of gluten 
and ash as well as color. 

In the case of patent flours the lower the percentage of the 
flour, the lower will be the gluten and ash and the lighter 
will be the color, as evidenced by the so-called "short" or 
"first" patents, while the "long" or "second" patents con- 
sisting of a higher percentage of the endosperm, will be corre- 
spondingly higher in gluten and ash and somewhat poorer in 
color. This is also true of 'straight" flours, while in the case 
of clear flour, the conditions are just opposite.- In "clears" 
gluten and ash will be lowest and the color lighter with a 
higher percentage of flour and reversedly. 

Bleaching of Flour. 

One of the most apparent and therefore most desirable 
properties of flour is its white color, which, if representing the 
natural color of the starchy contents of the endosperm, is in- 
deed an indication of high quality. 

However, for lower grades of flour a better color is also 
desirable, therefore to obtain this result from that part of the 
endosperm containing more branny material, bleaching of the 
flour is frequently resorted to, the more readily so because it 
has been observed, that particularly new flour is improved 
thereby also in other directions. 

A more detailed discussion of the processes used for this 
purpose will be found in Chapter II on flour, to which refer- 
ence is made herewith. 

Use of Offals. 

The various by-products and offals obtained in the making 
of flour, bran and shorts, screenings, shrunken wheat, buck 
wheat, oats and barley, are generally used for making up 
various feeding mixtures for cattle, horses, hogs and chickens. 

In mixing these feeds and particularly if the same should 
serve any special purpose the composition of the various ingre- 
dients entering into the feed, especially with reference to their 
relative percentages of starch or other carbohydrates, protein, 
fat and crude fiber must be taken into due consideration as is 
demonstrated in the following analysis and opinion on same. 



Analysis of Commercial Feeds. 



No. 1 

Water 7.03 % 

Ash 8.69 * ' 

Protein (N. x 6.25) 20.31" 

Crude Fibre 8.69 ' ' 

Ether Extract 8.29 ' < 

Nitrogen Free Extract 46.99 " 



No. 2 No. 3 

10.55% 11.00 % 

2.65" 3.14" 

9.98" 14.13" 

3.10" 3.43" 

6.11 " 3.04" 

67.61" 65.26" 



No. 4 

. 6.44% 
. 6.51 " 
.12.50" 
.21.09" 
. 1.21" 
.52.25" 



Sample labeled "No. 1" represents an Oil Cake Feed, and 
is not a pure linseed meal, as is indicated by its high ash and 
nitrogen free extract, as also by its low protein content. 

Sample labeled "No. 2" Red Dog Flour, does not come up 
to the requirements in that its protein content is below one- 
half that required by standard, while its fat is somewhat 
higher, as also by reason of the fact that the same in reality 
represents a hominy feed. 

Sample labeled "No. 3" (Rye Middlings) comes up fully 
to the required standard, with the possible exception that the 
fat content is about 0.87% below. 

Sample labeled "No. 4" represents Malt Sprouts, and does 
not come up to the standard in protein content by some 12%, 
while its fibre content exceeds by 77c the required amount. 
These conditions, that is low protein and high fibre content, are 
attributable to an excessive amount of barley hulls contained 
in this feed. 

Not infrequently, the addition of special other materials, 
such as oil cake or cotton seed meal, brewers dried grains, 
molasses and even mineral matter in form of ground bones, is 
desirable in some instances. 



n 



CHAPTER II 
Baking Materials. 

FLOUR. 

Different Kinds of Flour. 

There are four different and distinct kinds of flour on the 
market, namely, hard Spring wheat flour, hard "Winter wheat 
flour, soft Winter wheat flour and Durum wheat flour. Each 
kind possesses widely different qualities and qualifications in 
regard to bread making, and cake and pastry baking. 

Hard Spring Wheat Flour. 

The principal kind to be considered is hard Spring wheat 
flour, which is milled from hard Spring wheat grown in Min- 
nesota and North Dakota and the area immediately adjacent. 
This flour has a rich creamy color and possesses a high con- 
tent of gluten which is of the best quality. The flour is 
"sharp" or granular to the "feel," and because of its gluten 
quality and content, produces a well risen loaf of bread. A 
vigorous fermentation is required for the proper development 
of the gluten, which becomes elastic, tenacious and pliable. 

Hard Winter Wheat Flour. 

Hard "Winter wheat flour, as indicated, is milled from hard 
"Winter wheat and has as a synonym the name Kansas Flour 
because Kansas produces most of the hard "Winter wheat flour. 
Nebraska also produces a large amount of hard "Winter wheat 
flour. It is of good color, well defined flavor and rather 
strong gluten, although not so strong as the Spring wheat 
flours. In the bread-making industry only the Spring wheat 
flour and the hard "Whiter wheat flour are to be considered, 
inasmuch as soft W 7 inter wheat flour is seldom used. Gen- 
erally a blend of the first two mentioned is used — and are so 
blended as to combine the desirable features of the strong 
gluten in Spring wheat flour with the superior flavor and 
color of Kansas flour.* 



*See Blending of Flour. 



Soft Winter Wheat Flour. 

The third kind of flour is the soft wheat flour or soft Win- 
ter wheat flour, grown throughout the Central States and on 
the Western Coast. It has a low gluten content, the gluten 
is poor in quality, and produces a loaf of bread very poor in 
quality as compared to Spring wheat flour. The flour itself 
is very white, has a soft and "fluffy" texture and possesses 
an excellent flavor, but on account of the low gluten content 
and its poor quality, it is seldom used in bread making. The 
soft Winter wheat flour is used to advantage as a pastry 
flour, on account of its color and of the fact that less short- 
ening is required, and further because there is no demand 
made upon the gluten of the flour such as is necessary in pro- 
ducing a loaf of bread. 

Durum Wheat Flour. 

Durum wheat flour is a yellowish, creamy product, milled 
from Durum wheat which is an extremely hard wheat grown 
in Western North Dakota and Montana. The flour is very 
granular, has a high content of gluten which is very strong 
and hard, and consequently develops somewhat slowly in fer- 
mentation. 

Because of its high creamy color which is retained to quite 
some extent in the baked product, it is seldom used alone for 
bread-making; a mixture however of soft Winter wheat flour 
with Durum wheat flour produces a blend very suitable for 
bread. It is chiefly employed in the manufacture of maccaroni, 
noodles, etc. 

Composition of Flour. 

The composition of the several kinds of flour varies with 
climatic conditions, so that a Spring wheat flour in one part 
of Minnesota may not be exactly the same as one grown in 
another part of Minnesota, and the same may be said of Kan- 
sas flours. The soft wheats grown in Ohio and Michigan for 
instance produce a flour of higher gluten content than the 
flour milled from the wheats grown in Illinois, while the flour 
produced from the wheats grown in the mountains of Ten- 
nessee produces a gluten content still higher than the average 
soft wheat flours. 

13 



The seasonal changes have a decided effect upon wheat 
and upon the flour milled from it. For instance a dry hot 
season fosters the development of a higher gluten content, 
while a wet and cold season produces a wheat lower in gluten 
and higher in carbohydrates. Thus, the flour produced by 
any one mill will vary from season to season, and, unless the 
miller exercises a scientific and rigid control over the plant, 
it is impossible to find the same brand of flour of uniform- 
quality, year after year. 

Composition of the Patent Grade of Hard Spring, Hard Winter, 
and Soft Winter Wheat Flour. 

Spring Hard Soft 

Standard Winter Winter 

Moisture 11.40 % 12.52 % 12.36 % 

Color 100.00 101.00 103.00 

Ash 0.420% 0.406% 0.372 % 

Absorption 61.00 " 57.50 " 54.00 " 

Gluten 10.95 " 9.86 " 8.32 " 

Protein (Nx6.25) .... 11.16 " 10.06 " 8.52 " 

Loaves per barrel 100.00 97.60 94.20 

Volume of loaf 100.00 98.60 96.30 

Quality of loaf 100.00 97.00 97.00 

From the foregoing analysis it is very evident that the 
differences in the three flours, hard Spring wheat flour, hard 
Winter wheat flour and soft Winter wheat flour, are manifested 
in many ways. The ash content is high in the Spring wheat 
flour and low in the soft Winter wheat flour, while the absorp- 
tion, gluten, loaves per barrel and quality of the loaf, decrease 
in the same order. 

Grades of Flour. 

In milling it is found convenient to divide the product 
into several grades, such as first patent, second patent, straight, 
clear, low grade, and the quality of the flour under each grade 
varies according to the individual miller. For instance a 
patent flour from one mill may comprise 65-70% of the total 
available flour, while another so-called patent comprises 85 
to 90% of the total flour, and although they are both "pat- 
ents" the quality of one is much better than that of the 
other. With the idea of standardization of flour the U. S. 

14 



Dept. of Agriculture has suggested — but has not as yet adopted 
— the following definitions of standards. 

Straight Flour, made from hard Spring, soft Spring, hard 
Winter, Durum or soft Winter wheats, is the fine, clean, 
sound, unbleached product made from such wheat meals by 
bolting or by a process accomplishing the same result, from 
which none of the purified middlings flour shall have been 
removed, and which does not exceed 97% of the total nour 
produced, and contains not less than a specified percentage 
of nitrogen (1.50 for hard Spring and hard Winter, 1.75 for 
Durum, 1.15 for soft Winter), not more than 0.50% of fibre, 
and not more than a specified percentage of ash, (0.52 for 
hard Spring, 0.50 for hard Winter, 0.65 for Durum, 0.44 for 
soft Winter), when these determinations are calculated to 
a moisture content of 11%. 

Patent Flour, made from hard Spring, soft Spring, hard 
Winter, soft Winter or Durum wheats, is the fine, clean, 
sound, unbleached product made from such wheat meals by 
bolting or by a process accomplishing the same results, pro- 
duced by the reduction of the best of the purified middlings, 
and containing not more than a specified percentage of ash 
(0.42 for hard Spring, 0.40 for hard Winter, 0.37 for soft Win- 
ter, 0.55 for Durum), when calculated to a moisture content 
of 11%. 

First Clear Flour, made from hard Spring, soft Spring, 
hard Winter, soft Winter or Durum wheats, is a straight flour 
made from such wheats from which the patent flour or a por- 
tion of the purified middlings has been removed, and which 
shall not contain more than a specified percentage of ash 
(0.80 for hard Spring, 0.70 for hard Winter, 0.60 for soft Win- 
ter, 1.0 for Durum), when calculated to a moisture content 
of 11%. 

Whole Wheat Meal (Flour) is the fine, clean, sound product 
made by grinding wheat without the removal of more than 
1% of the wheat in the form of bran. 

Bolted Wheat Meal (Fine Wheat Meal) is the fine, clean, 
sound product made by grinding wheat without the removal 
of more than 10% of the wheat in the form of bran. 



Graham Flour (Graham Meal) is the unbolted wheat meal 
made from clean, sound wheat. 

Rye Flour is the fine, clean, sound product made by bolt- 
ing rye meal, and contains not less than 1.36% of nitrogen, 
and not more than 1.25% of ash, when these determinations 
are calculated to a moisture content of 11%. 

First patent includes generally about 70% of the best 
portion of the flour and second patent comprises about 85%. 
of the total flour, while "straight" is the total flour from 
which has been excluded only 3-5% of "low grade." Clear 
flour is that portion amounting to 15-30% that remains after 
drawing off the patent flour. 

Average Analysis of Different Grades of Flour, Milled from 
Hard Spring Wheat. 

First Low 

1st Pat. 2d Pat. Straight Clear Grade 

Moisture.. 12.86 % 13.08 % 13.24 % 13.76 % 14.36 % 

Color 100.00 " 95.50 " 91.00" 70.00 " 49.00 " 

Ash 0.421" 0.448/' 0.486" 0.680" 0.890" 

Absorption 62.00 " 63.00 " 64.00 " 65.00 " 68.00 " 

Gluten (dry) 10.84 " 10.98 " 11.46 " 12.36 " 13.54 " 

Loaves per barrel 100.00 101.60 103.20 104.80 109.70 

Volume of loaf 100.00 98.60 95.90 93.70 91.30 

Quality of loaf 100.00 97.50 96.80 95.00 84.00 

AVEVEAGE VALUE. 100.00 98.30 96.73 90.88 83.50 

Fermenting period 100.00 105.40 109.30 116.00 120.40 

Quality of gluten 100.00 96.00 93.20 87.50 80.90 

It is evident from this table of analysis that the quality 
of the first patent is much better than second patent, while 
the latter is better than the subsequent grades indicated. 
The gradations from first patent to low grade are more or less 
constant, increasing or decreasing as shown. For example : 
the color of the flour decreases as we pass from patent to 
low grade, while the ash content increases. The volume of 
the loaf and the quality of loaf as well as the quality of the 
gluten, which may be considered as indices of the quality of 
the bread produced therefrom, decrease most constantly, 
until it is evident from the analysis that the quality of a 
loaf of bread produced from the first clear or low grade flour, 
is so much below that produced from patent, that it is never 

1G 



used alone in the baking industry. The poor quality, loaf 
volume, and the color of the baked loaf of the low grade flour 
is so low that it is never to any advantage to use it. The 
flour generally in use for bread making is a long patent — 65 
to 90% — or straight grade. 

The detection of poorer grades of flour by analysis is both 
simple and desirable, especially since a lower grade may be 
treated — for instance, bleached — so it may pass as far as 
external appearances are concerned as a higher grade flour. 
However, in such instances a chemical analysis, as previously 
indicated, becomes the only method whereby the fraud may be 
definitely detected.* 

Storage of Flours. 

The question of storing of flour is quite as important as 
the buying, although usually it gets much less consideration. 
Flour should not contain more than 13% of moisture, because 
above that amount, there is danger of its spoiling — becoming 
musty or rancid. A high moisture content promotes the 
activity of the enzymes present in the flour, causing the small 
amount of fat contained in it to rancidify, producing a sharp 
taste and an unpleasant odor. 

Flour should be stored in a cool, dry, light place — never 
in a cold, dark basement nor upon the floor. All extremes of 
temperature and moisture are to be avoided. The optimum 
temperature for the store room is about 65-75 °F. with a rela- 
tive humidity near 70%. Flour very readily absorbs odors 
and should be carefully protected against them. Ventilation 
and proper circulation of air are necessary and flours in 
"jute" should be piled with a "two-by-four" between each 
tier. "When flour is stored in bags, it should be changed more 
or less frequently to allow the particles to come in contact with 
air, and to prevent it from packing. 

Storing of flour has a decidedly beneficial effect upon its 
quality. New flours generally become sticky upon being fer- 
mented in the dough, but proper aging is conducive to nor- 
mal fermentation. The effect is due to the decrease in quan- 
tity of gliadin, which is converted upon storing into glutenin. 



See Chapter V. 



The large percentage of gliadiii which gives to the gluten the 
sticky adhesive qualities is decreased until the gliadin ratio, 
that is the relative amount of gliadin in the gluten, is reduced 
to the optimum amount. 

Aging has a bleaching effect upon flour, and also tends to 
increase its power of absorption. Newly milled flour when 
properly stored, may lose 2 to 3% of moisture, but the ability 
to absorb water when made into the dough, increases at the 
same time often as much as 6 to 7%, so that the flour requires^ 
a larger amount of water to make the dough of the proper 
consistency. 

Flour Blending. 

Experience among bakers who have given consideration 
to the many variables that enter into a loaf of bread has 
shown that different flours exhibit quite different character- 
istics and qualities ; that wheats grown and best adapted to 
the several localities of the world, having as they do different 
climatic and soil conditions, produce flours that have inherent 
qualities and properties peculiarly distinct and individual. 

It is quite generally known that from the hard Spring 
wheats of Minnesota and Manitoba there is milled a flour of 
a rich creamy color, and whose gluten is very strong and 
elastic, its water absorbing power high, etc. It is also of 
record that the flour produced from the wheats in the south- 
west United States has a good color and flavor. Each different 
kind of flour, as a Northwest hard Spring and a Kansas South- 
west, shows a character decidedly of its own. Unfortunately no 
one wheat produces a flour that combines all the good quali- 
ties that the industry desires. Wheat seems to develop cer- 
tain qualities at the expense and neglect of others. This per- 
haps is the first and best reason that initiated blending of 
flours. 

The blending process may seem from this to be quite sim- 
ple. All that may seem necessary to do is to dump a sack 
of Kansas flour in a bin with another sack of Minnesota ; 
thereby obtaining a blend combining all the qualities that 
had been hoped for. However this is not true, because we 
realize that flour may be blended to accord with other con- 
ditions. At this point it should be said that a haphazard 

18 



method in blending different flours may not only be of no 
advantage whatever, but may serve to impair the value of 
the flour. Blending must be controlled by a method of pro- 
cedure which is regulated by careful analysis and scientific 
reasoning if the optimum results are to be obtained. 

Reason for Blending. 

The principal reason for blending is due to characteristic 
differences in quality exhibited by the different kinds of flour. 
A hard Spring wheat flour with high content of strong gluten 
and high absorptive power could well be blended with a 
Kansas hard Winter wheat flour, because the latter improves 
the color and flavor of the loaf baked from the blend and at 
the same time does not decrease the gluten content nor impair 
its quality to any great extent. The blend generally yields 
to fermentation so that the gluten is properly and more readily 
developed. 

Flours should never be blended necessarily to reduce cost 
because in doing so it has the effect of adulterating a good 
grade of flour with a poorer one. This does not mean how- 
ever that one should never blend a high or short patent with 
a straight grade, because quite often it is advantageous to 
buy for blending purposes the strongest and best flour, so 
that in the end a cheaper blend may be produced. Some 
flours during the fermentation tighten up. This type of 
flour could well be blended with another that has a tendency 
to become soft and sticky. Other flours produce gluten 
bound dough and should be blended with a softer flour. 
Flours are blended differently according as the bread is made 
by hand or by machinery. 

To blend successfully, one should have an accurate and inti- 
mate knowledge of each flour, its character and properties, 
and understand the effect that each individual flour may 
have on each of the others and on the blend. If he blends to 
improve the quality of gluten, lie should know that that flour 
must have a stronger gluten. If for color and flavor, the 
added flour should be one that will give the better color and 
flavor in a loaf made from the blend. It would be folly to 
blend a hard Spring wheat flour and a soft Winter wheat 
flour for a sponge, and then more of the same blend to make 



the dough. In the mechanical manipulation, it should be seen 
that the flours are perfectly mixed so that the blend is uni- 
form in composition, and the apparatus should be tested by- 
analysis to show whether or not the blend is an intimate mix- 
ture of the several flours. 

Flour Bleaching. 

The process of bleaching flour has developed into one of 
enormous proportions, largely because of the constant demand- 
of the baker and of the housewife for whiter bread. The 
ambition of the miller has been to produce a flour whiter than 
his competitor and to assemble the various streams from his 
mill which would give the whitest product. The bleaching 
industry is' due to the observation that certain flours of same 
quality and character exhibited a darker or lighter color. 
The white flour, however, commands a higher price. It was 
recognized that the storing of flour had the effect of bleach- 
ing it and it was supposed that a bleaching agent could be 
applied to flour which would effect the same condition. This 
occasioned much experimentation before the process became 
mechanically perfected. 

The color of flour is that of the endosperm of the wheat, 
from which it is produced, and is a natural one. Color is 
peculiarly characteristic of the different kinds of wheat and 
is inherent to each particular kind of wheat flour. Crease 
dirt and bran particles find their way into flour and affect 
to no small degree the color of the flour. Color of this kind 
may be considered due to foreign matter. 

Methods for Bleaching. 

The first general method for bleaching flour was in an 
atmosphere of oxides of nitrogen, into which flour was con- 
ducted and agitated. A spark between two electric terminals 
effects a chemical union of the nitrogen and oxygen of the 
air, forming nitrogen peroxide gas, which, when mixed with 
flour, has a bleaching action. In the method of operation, the 
flour is passed through a chamber or agitator into which is 
conducted the nitrogen peroxide gas from the generator. 
Meanwhile a process in which chlorine gas is used as the 
bleaching agent has been developed. The effect by both 

20 



processes is the same. The mechanical detail has been so 
perfected that the operation is almost automatically con- 
tinuous. The claims made at first by the bleaching advo- 
cates have been tempered by facts supported by numerous 
experiments, so that now we admit that the process with 
its limitations has quite some merit. 

Bleaching has the least effect upon the gluten of soft 
flours, while in hard and especially harsh flours which have 
been bleached, the dough works more easily and makes a 
bold, well risen loaf. Bleaching does not destroy the enzymes, 
although the fat in the flour does not seem to rancidify as 
easily as in an unbleached flour — that is, the keeping quali- 
ties of a bleached flour, as far as rancidity is concerned, is 
enhanced. Bleaching has the effect of a quick aging process 
without a long storing. New flours are prone in fermenta- 
tion to become sticky and soft, while the same flour, properly 
aged, works up better and has a higher absorption value. 
A bleaching apparatus has been used in many bakeries to 
treat new flour, which of itself can with difficulty produce 
a good loaf of bread. 

Objections to Bleaching 1 . 

The most serious objection to bleaching of flour is that a 
low grade flour, which is evidenced by its color, may be 
bleached and made to compare favorably with a higher grade 
flour. This may be considered a serious objection inasmuch 
as the baker or the consumer, who ordinarily buys his flour 
from the appearance, can readily be misled by a bleached 
low grade flour. 

Furthermore, flour which serves as the basis of food prod- 
ucts, should not be treated by chemical processes unknown 
to the public. Flour is a natural product and as such can 
be used without chemical treatment. Bleaching is not an 
improved milling process, because bleaching does not remove 
any impurities. In bleached flour there remains a small 
quantity of a chemical agent which is physiologically active, 
although the quantity may not be sufficient as to be deleterious 
to health. Nevertheless, when large quantities of flour or 
bread are consumed, there may be a sufficient amount of 
active constituents to deter digestion. 

21 



The exact nature of the bleaching process is not fully 
agreed upon as yet and while we know that bleaching pro- 
duces certain effects upon flour, giving from one standpoint 
a better product and from another a poorer one, the chemical 
effect upon the flour is as yet unknown. Chemical analysis 
however may readily detect bleaching, and the extent to which 
flour has been bleached. Bleached flour is not necessarily an 
inferior product and if offered for sale, strictly upon its own 
merits, it would meet competition of unbleached flour very 
favorably. 

WATER. 

Importance of Water. 

The great importance of the character, general composi- 
tion and bacteriological purity of the water employed in 
baking, has only been recognized within the last few years. 
Natural water, while its biological purity may be satisfac- 
tory, is never found to be chemically pure, owing to the fact 
that it is a ready solvent for many substances, mineral or 
organic, with which it comes in contact during its course. 
The dissolved substances have been found to influence the 
fermentation that bread has to undergo in its dough stages 
and this affects certain essential properties of the finished 
product such as flavor, color, loaf, volume, texture and 
stability. 

It has been frequently said that water fit for drinking 
purposes is also fit for bread making; but while this is true 
in general, it is not so under all conditions. In fact a certain 
type of water, the so-called alkaline waters, may be very 
desirable drinking water yet it is very undesirable, if indeed 
not unfit for baking. In other cases the composition of the 
water may at least necessitate certain modifications in the 
formulas employed in the manufacture of bread as well as of 
various cakes. 

Turbid Water. 

Turbidity, which is icaused by suspended particles of insol- 
uble substances, such as fine clay, hydrate of iron, organic 

22 



matter, etc., does not necessarily exclude such water from 
being used for baking. If the turbidity can be fully removed 
by filtration, resulting in a clear water of good quality other- 
wise, the water may well be used. In cases wherein the tur- 
bidity is caused by organic refuse, it is difficult through fil- 
tration alone to render water fit for baking purposes. On the 
other hand, even a clear and sparkling water may be con- 
taminated by organic matter and infected with bacteria to 
such an extent as to affect fermentation by the development of 
foreign organisms. 

Hard and Soft Water; Alkaline Water. 

If a water contains in solution appreciable quantities of 
calcium and magnesium salts in form of bicarbonates or sul- 
phates, it is termed hard water, otherwise it is soft. 
Since the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium which are 
found practically in all natural waters can be precipitated 
by boiling, and the hardness thereby removed, this hardness 
is termed temporary hardness. Hardness due to the dis- 
solved sulphates of the same two elements and which cannot 
be removed by boiling, is called permanent. Waters con- 
taining sodium carbonate (soda) in solution, are termed 
alkaline, and have an alkaline reaction when being boiled. 
Other substances occurring in natural water are sodium 
chloride (common salt) silicates, occasionally iron salts, and 
organic matter of various composition. 

Effect of Different Waters in Baking. 

Important in the baking industry inasmuch as they have 
a decided effect upon the dough and its fermentation or upon 
the finished product, are the substances or salts causing hard- 
ness, particularly calcium sulphate, sodium carbonate and 
sodium chloride. 

It has been demonstrated by extended experiments in the 
laboratories of the Institute and by practical observations, that 
waters possessing a fair degree of permanent hardness (cal- 
cium sulphate) strengthen or toughen the gluten, so that hi 
doughs made with such waters the carbondioxide is retained 
and enmeshed better, producing a finely grained texture. Ex- 
cessive hardness, however, retards the fermentation so that 

23 



higher temperatures or an increased quantity of yeast will be 
necessary to properly develop the dough. 

Soft water, particularly if used in connection with a 
weaker flour, permits softening- of the dough during fer- 
mentation, which makes the dough sticky and the resulting 
bread "soggy." Alkaline waters by virtue of the soda caus- 
ing their alkalinity, will not only reduce the acidity developed 
during fermentation, and thereby decrease the activity of the 
enzymes present in the flour as well as in the yeast used in 
the dough, but have directly a solvent effect upon the gluten, 
weakening it and reducing its gas retaining capacity. Hence, 
neither very soft nor alkaline waters should be used without 
being improved by proper treatment. 

Analysis of Typical Waters. 

(Parts per million.) 

Lake 
Soft Hard Alkaline Michigan 

Calcium carbonate 30 parts 353 parts... 64 parts... 75 parts 

Magnesium carbonate ....19 " 56 " ... 36 " ...15 " 

Calcium sulphate 7 " 275 " ...none 9 " 

Magnesium sulphate none 130 " 23 parts... 12 " 

Sodium carbonate none none 105 " ... none 

Sodium chloride 54 parts 63 parts... 29 " ...11 " 

Ammonia trace none trace none 

Silicates 3 parts. ... 10 parts. . . 15 parts. . . 5 " 

Organic matter 31 " 12 " ... 14 " ...10 " 

The waters designated as "soft" and "Lake Michigan" 
are quite similar and in general of the same type, the slight 
differences in the quantities of the various salts contained in 
these two waters being of no significance. 

The "hard" w r ater shows a high amount of both car- 
bonates as also the sulphates of calcium and magnesium ; yet 
these quantities do not exceed the maximum permissible for a 
water used for baking, and hence this water must be con- 
sidered as well adaptable for this purpose. 

The sample of "alkaline" water is of moderate hardness, 
but contains a fairly high amount of sodium carbonate suf- 
ficient to have a detrimental effect upon the dough ; hence, 
its use is not to be recommended. 



SUGARS. 

Sugars as Sweetening and Improving Agents. 

Sugars play an important part in the baking industry a3 
sweetening agents and improving agents. There are a great 
variety of sugars of different quality and composition and 
according to their most characteristic properties, one or the 
other should be used for specific purposes. In order to obtain 
a pronounced sweetness, sucrose is the most advisable, since 
the same has a greater sweetness than any other commercial 
sugar. The sugars belong to the class of bodies which are 
known as carbo-hydrates. Chemically, they consist of the 
elements of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. A characteristic 
of the majority of sugars is their sweet taste and solubility 
in water. Other carbohydrates, such as cellulose and starch, 
do not possess these properties or only to a very slight degree. 
By reason of their great solubility, sugars may be regarded 
as having a higher nutritive value than other carbohydrates, 
since insoluble carbohydrates must be converted into sugars 
before being fermented. Sugars are of vegetable as well as of 
animal origin. 

/Sugar is the substance from which during fermentation, 
the carbondioxide gas and alcohol is formed as indicated by 
the chemical formula C^EUO^ + H 2 = 4C0 2 -f 4C 2 H 6 0. 

The carbondioxide gas generated is held enmeshed in the 
small gluten cells and causes the dough to rise. Sugar is a 
factor in the moisture retaining quality of a loaf and gives the 
loaf in baking a nut brown color. In the growth of the yeast 
cells, no sugar is absorbed or assimilated by the yeast. The in- 
version as well as the fermentation of the sugar is effected not 
by the yeast cell itself, but by the enzymes that are generated 
by the healthy and vigorously growing yeast cells. 

Sucrose, Cane or Eeet Sugar. 

Sucrose is derived from the sugar cane, sugar beet, maple 
tree and the sorghum plant. The two first named are com- 
mercially of greater importance and the granulated sugar of 
commerce is obtained from these sources. From a chemical 
standpoint, cane and beet sugar in the refined state, due to 
their great purity, are therefore identical and there is also no 

25 



marked difference in the physical properties, such as sweet- 
ness, solubility, fermentability, etc. It is an erroneous opinion 
that cane sugar is sweeter than beet sugar or vice versa, 
because the sweetness depends solely on the degree of refine- 
ment. The fineness of crystal does not indicate the source of 
the sugar since each one of these sugars may be obtained 
coarse, fine, or powdered. On the other hand, there is a 
marked difference in the chemical and physical character of 
these sugars in the raw or partly refined state, on account 
of the variation of the amount of invert sugar, ash and nitrog- 
enous bodies which they contain. 

Cane sugar is unfermentable with yeast, but by the enzy- 
matic action of the invertase contained in the yeast, it is 
slowly converted into the fermentable invert sugar, which 
is a mixture of glucose and fructose. For this reason cane 
sugar must be regarded as being very slowly acted upon and 
when time is to be gained in fermentation, other sugars which 
may be directly fermented with yeast are preferable. For 
cake making, cane sugar (sucrose) cannot, at least not en- 
tirely, be substituted for by other sugars, on account of its 
great sweetening power. Cane sugar forms invert sugar not 
only through the action of certain enzymes as mentioned 
above, but also by heating with dilute acids and, though very 
slowly, by continuous boiling of an aqueous solution. 

The granulated, sugar of commerce is a very pure food 
product. The United States standard for white sugar is 
99.5% sucrose, the sucrose content of granulated sugar as a 
rule varies between 99.5% and 99.8%. Aside of a little mois- 
ture and invert sugar it usually contains minute amounts of 
ultramarine blue, which is added to the sugar to counteract 
the natural yellow tint. Granulated sugar is hardly ever 
adulterated, while powdered sugar sometimes contains starch 
and other adulterations which may be easily detected. 

Brown Sugar is a lesser refined sugar containing often a 
large percentage of impurities. Its sucrose content varies 
between 83 and 92%. It contains 3 to 6% invert sugar, 
3 to 6%> moisture and 1 to 3% mineral matter. As a sweeten- 
ing agent brown sugar is inferior to granulated sugar, but it 
promotes a more rapid fermentation. 

26 



Maple Sugar is never as pure and sweet as refined cane 
or beet sugar, but possesses a good flavor, for which it is 
highly estimated. It is often subjected to adulteration with 
brown sugar. It contains between 72 to 88% sucrose and 
1 to 8% invert sugar. 

Syrups are liquids separated from the granulated sugars 
by centrifuging. There is a great variation in the composi- 
tion of syrups and therefore a wide range in price of the 
various grades. Aside of the sucrose, they contain a large 
amount of invert and other reducing sugars, water and min- 
eral matters. Syrup for table use contains about 40% sucrose, 
20% water, 10% organic matter and 5% mineral matter. 
Maple syrup is quite frequently adulterated with the latter. 
The molasses represents the best mother-liquid from which 
sugar is crystallized and from which no more sugar can be 
obtained profitably. Molasses contains between 25 and 43% 
sucrose, 15 to 40% invert sugar, 10 to 20% organic non-sugars, 
20 to 307c water and 4 to 8% ash. 

Dextrose or Corn Sugar. 

Corn sugar is known as starch or grape sugar, dextrose, 
glucose or anhydrous sugar, etc., and occurs together with levu- 
lose in honey and with levulose and cane sugar in fruits. It is 
manufactured in this country exclusively from corn starch by 
the action of dilute acids. In this process a number of inter- 
mediate products are formed of which the dextrines are of the 
greatest importance. The more thorough the conversion of the 
starch, the smaller will be the percentage of dextrine and the 
larger glucose. Time, temperature and concentration of acid 
are mostly responsible for the difference in composition. Since 
corn sugar is used by the baker mostly on account of the easy 
fermentation, it will be of the greatest advantage for his pur- 
poses to use the starch sugar in as pure a condition as possible, 
since the dextrine is not fermentable and remains as an indif- 
ferent admixture. 

Corn sugar shows great variations in its appearance, and 
it is well to call attention to the fact that from the appearance 
no conclusion can be drawn as to the purity of the product. 
Corn sugar may be either a syrup or solid, in form of powder, 
lumps, or granulated. The color varies from white to dark 

27 



brown, the brown color being caused by a little caramelized 
sugar. 

Corn sugar is only two-thirds as sweet as cane sugar and 
therefore as a sweetening agent is of less importance than the 
latter. It is readily soluble in water and is directly fermentable 
by the action of the yeast without any further conversion. For 
this reason corn sugar in its various forms may be applied with 
great advantage in bread making; however, it must be used 
in larger quantities than cane sugar, due to its water con- 
tent. Aside of shortening the fermenting period, corn sugar 
means a considerable saving for the baker on account of its 
lower price. 

Commercial glucose varies in composition according to 
methods of manufacture. A high dextrine content is to be 
avoided because dextrine is not fermentable. 

Composition of Oorn (Sugars. 

Moisture 1 to 18 % 

Dextrose 80 " 97" 

Maltose trace " 2" 

Dextrine 1 " 10 " 

Mineral Matter trace " 0.8 " 

Levulose or Fructose, together with dextrose, is formed 
in the inversion of cane sugar. It is sweeter than dextrose, 
but not quite as sweet as cane sugar. Pure levulose is now 
manufactured commercially. 

Maltose or Malt Sugar is obtained from gelatinized starch 
by the action of the enzyme diastase, which occurs in malt. 
Malt itself contains a certain percentage of maltose, but the 
greatest part is formed in treating starch with malt. Maltose 
is slighly sweeter than corn sugar, but not as sweet as cane 
sugar. Like the latter it is not directly fermentable, but must 
be transformed into dextrose. This is accomplished by the 
action of the maltase, an enzyme contained in yeast. Malt 
extract contains beside the soluble proteid matter and diastase, 
a large percentage of maltose. Maltose, like corn sugar, though 
to a lesser degree, hastens fermentation but it must be used 
carefully and with restrictions. An excess will have the ten- 
dency to over-ripen the gluten. 

28 



Milk Sugar, also known as Lactose, is the principal carbo- 
hydrate in milk in which it is normally present in amounts 
varying from 3 to 5%. This sugar has only a very slight 
sweetening power and its use as a baking material is still some- 
what questionable. The same is prepared from skim milk, and 
is frequently adulterated with grape and corn sugars in conse- 
quence of which its purity should always be established by 
chemical analysis. Like cane sugar it is readily inverted with 
dilute acids into fermentable sugar, dextrose and galactose, 
but unlike cane sugar by its very nature it favors lactic acid 
fermentation when used in the dough. The principal use of 
this sugar is for the preparation of infant foods; its cost 
makes its employment in baking rather prohibitive except in 
special instances where certain effects are desired. 

SALT. 

Purity of Salt. 

Salt is produced from three different sources and may be 
named according to their source ; bag or sea salt, rock or mine 
salt, natural or pit salt. It is not found in nature sufficently 
pure for bread making, its chief impurities are calcium and 
magnesium salts. There are obtainable on the market several 
brands of refined salt for use in baking, which are almost 
chemically pure sodium chloride. It is preferable to use the 
best grade of salt because of its purity which gives a pure 
salt flavor unmixed with a "biting" or burning taste imparted 
by impure salt. 

Effect of Salt. 

Salt is used for two purposes each of which is very import- 
ant in bread making. It imparts a pleasant flavor to bread 
and without it bread would be insipid. A small quantity of 
salt has a sensitizing action upon the palate which accentuates 
the more delicate and less pronounced flavors of other sub- 
stances. For example, the sense of taste can detect a small 
amount of sugar in the presence of salt, when without salt, 
it would not be tasted. 

Upon fermentation salt has the greatest influence. It is 
used as a "governor" to control the fermentation of the dough, 



and has a powerful action upon lactic acid and other foreign 
ferments in that it checks their activity and growth and yet 
is conducive to the proper yeast fermentation. Salt is used 
to the extent of 1.75% based on the flour (3^ pounds to the 
barrel) although somewhat less effects a retarding action 
upon alcoholic fermentation. The retarding action due to salt 
is often taken advantage of on hot sultry summer days when 
the dough "comes fast" by adding an extra supply of s-ilt.^ 
However, decreasing the quantities of yeast and sugar are to be 
recommended instead, inasmuch as too much salt makes 
the bread bitter and impairs its quality in general. Salt 
checks the diastasis and controls the hydrolysis of the starch 
particles and can well be used in larger amounts with new 
flour on account of its content of very active enzymes. In 
average amounts, salt produces a bleaching action upon the 
bread although the nature of this action is not agreed upon. 

Analysis of Three Different Samples of Salt. 

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 

Moisture 0.027 % 0.390 % 3.60 % 

Matter insoluble in water 0.010 " 0.045 " 0.084 ' ' 

Calcium sulphate 0.040 " 1.894 " 2.100 ' « 

Calcium chloride none none none 

Magnesium sulphate 0.012" 0.340" 0.542" 

Magnesium chloride 0.007 " 0.0S0 " 0.10G ' ' 

Pure salt (sodium chloride) ' 99.534 " 97.251 " 93.568 " 

According to the foregoing analysis, sample "No. 1" rep- 
resents a good grade of salt, having as it does a low moisture 
content, low content of calcium and magnesium salts. Sample 
"No. 2" and "No. 3" are both lower in grade on account of 
the total impurities and moisture content. 

YEAST. 

Introduction of Pure Yeast. 

One of the greatest evolutions in the baking industry has 
probably been effected by no other one material to any greater 
extent than the introduction of compressed pure culture yeast. 
In fact this has been of such great importance that without 
compressed yeast, it would be impossible to manufacture bread 

30 



by the straight dough process. Yeast itself, is a microscopic 
form of plant life belonging to the Fungus group, as is more 
fully described in Chapter VIII, to which reference should be 
made in this connection.* 

Functions of the Yeast. 

Healthy and vigorously growing yeast excretes a series of 
soluble bodies or substances which are of the utmost import- 
ance to the fermentation of dough and baking of bread. 
These active principles are known as enzymes and are pro- 
duced by living organisms. The most remarkable character- 
istic of enzymes is that a very small amount is able to change 
or convert an enormously large quantity of substance and at 
the same time remain unaffected. Chiefly of interest among 
enzymes are zymase, invertase, maltase, diastase and protease. 
Zymase is the enzyme which is directly responsible for break- 
ing up of sugars into alcohol and carbon-dioxide gas. It acts 
only upon the simpler sugars of the dextrose type. The ris- 
ing of the dough is due then to the activity of the zymase. 
Invertase "inverts" or converts cane sugar, which cannot be 
fermented directly, into dextrose and levulose which are 
readily fermentable. Maltase converts maltose or malt sugar 
into dextrose so that consequently maltose may be used in 
bread making, but is converted into simpler sugars before 
being in a condition that they are of use in fermentation. 
Diastase is an enzyme that effects a transformation of starch 
into maltose. Yeast excretes diastase but malt extract 
furnishes a large supply of diastase and is used quite exten- 
sively (see Malt Extract). Protease is a proteolytic enzyme 
that acts upon proteins. It has a solvent action and renders 
the nitrogenous material soluble so that it may be readily used 
and assimilated by the growing yeast. Protease also has a 
softening effect upon the gluten in the dough and aids in its 
proper development. 

Growth of Yeast. 

For the proper growth and development of yeast, certain 
soluble substances are necessary, including mineral salts and 
soluble proteid material. The mineral salts are furnished in 
part by the flour which contains, -among other substances, 



* See also Plate VI. 



potassium, calcium, and magnesium phosphates. Potassium 
phosphate is absolutely indispensable to the growth and devel- 
opment of yeast while magnesium salts are of great value if 
not necessary. Sodium and calcium phosphates cannot effec- 
tively replace the potassium salt. Oxygen is another consti- 
tuent that is necessary for yeast growth. It promotes activity 
and a rapid and vigorous growth of yeast cells. In fermenta- 
tion of dough, the oxygen incorporated in the dough is used 
up by the yeast before the fermentation of the sugar is begun. 
Peculiar also is the action of yeast upon the dextrose and 
levulose, the former is fermented first and not until all the 
dextrose has disappeared is the levulose attacked. For a 
good, strong healthy and vigorous fermentation, a supply of 
food that may be readily assimilated is necessary and may be 
supplied through the use of malt extract, special sugars, and 
other yeast foods and improvers. 

Various Kinds of Yeast. 

While the various kinds of yeast employed hereto- 
fore for baking purposes are of no more than pass- 
ing interest to the baker at this time, still for the 
purpose of completeness a short reference should be made 
thereto. Among these probably the principal one is the Barm- 
Yeast or Ferment, sometimes called Stock Yeast, prepared in 
different ways. The next step was the Dry Yeast and then the 
Compressed Yeast. The Barm or Stock Yeast is obtained from 
spontaneous fermentation, a variety of formulae having been 
pursued with greater or lesser success. These consisted chiefly 
of boiling some dried hops in water and after being brought 
down to a moderate temperature of about 114° F., flour, sugar 
and ground malt were added and the same kept at this tem- 
perature for a few hours and allowed to settle, when the liquid 
was separated from the insoluble matter which had settled, and 
cooled to ordinary temperature. It was subjected to ordinary 
air and spontaneous fermentation which was completed after 
about 24 to 48 hours. 

Dry yeast was a subsequent product which in many in- 
stances was prepared from the stock obtained from spon- 
taneous fermentation in the manner indicated. In order to 
press and dry it, and overcome the difficulties of bacterial 
infections, the same was mixed with corn meal and corn starch. 



32 



In this way, of course, the yeast was frequently in a highly 
weakened condition and would produce results only after 
somewhat more extended time. The dry yeast is still being 
used quite extensively by the housewife, but very little by 
the practical baker. These yeasts are not to be recommended 
nor are they adaptable since by reason of the way in which they 
are obtained, spontaneous fermentation, it is evident that for- 
eign infection is difficult to avoid, while it is absolutely certain 
that there can be no question of uniformity either with 
regards to appearance and flavor of the product, through their 
use. 

Pure Culture Yeast is derived by isolating one single cell 
of a certain yeast, the characteristics of which have been 
definitely ascertained and which is then propagated under the 
most sterile conditions, until larger quantities have been ob- 
tained, which are then used to innoculate Pure Yeast Appara- 
tus, in which the amount is increased by further propagation.* 

Compressed Yeast. 

In the manufacture of compressed yeast a quantity of corn 
ground to a meal is cooked under pressure to effect gelatiniza- 
tion of the starch. This is known as the corn mash. It is 
then run into the malt mash, which is prepared in a tub pro- 
vided with a false bottom and in which the cleaned and ground 
or crushed malt is mixed with water at a temperature of 
about 40 to 45° C. The temperature is then raised to 50° C, 
whereupon the raw grain or gelatinized corn mash is led in 
and digestion continued between 50 and 60° C. until all the 
starch is converted into sugar. By means of the false bottoms 
the liquid is then separated from the grains and contains be- 
side the sugar that has formed, also soluble mineral matter 
as well as soluble nitrogenus substances. This liquid or wort 
is then mixed or ''pitched" with the yeast and fermentation 
allowed to proceed until all of the sugar has been converted 
into carbonic acid and alcohol. During this time, the yeast, 
as already indicated, multiplies very rapidly. The yeast is 
then removed from the completely fermented liquid by cen- 
trifuging. It is conveyed through cooling apparatus to receiv- 



* See Chapter VIII. 

33 



ing tanks, and then passes through a series of filters, where 
the superfluous liquid is pressed out. The compressed yeast 
remaining in the filter presses is mixed and by means of pack- 
ing machinery is put up in convenient and suitable sized por- 
tions which are then kept in cold storage until they are 
brought to the market for use. 

Pure compressed yeast should contain about 73.5% of 
moisture ; it should be free from starch and somewhat crumbly 
but not slimy. It should be of pale yellowish brown color. The 
composition of yeast varies considerably. 

Varying Chemical Composition of Compressed Yeast. 

Moisture from 60 to 75 % 

Protein from 10 to 25 " 

Ash from 2.5 to 10.5 < ' 

Fat from 1 to 5 " 

Starch from to 35 " 

Fermenting power (CO o ) from 85 to 100 ' ' 

Dead cells from to 10 " 

Bacteria from to 15 " 

The chief adulterant in compressed yeast is starch which 
is easily detected. The use of starch may be considered 
objectionable when the purpose is to give added weight, but 
at the same time an added 5 to 10% may greatly facilitate its 
keeping qualities. Starch absorbs and retains moisture and 
keeps the yeast cells in a drier condition. Starch was formerly 
added because the bacterial content of the yeast produced a 
slimy product which could only with difficulty be filtered. 
Adding the starch overcame this difficulty. Inasmuch as 
through the improved methods of manufacture, yeast is prac- 
tically free from bacteria and since pure yeast has keeping 
qualities that adequately meet the demands of commercial 
conditions, the addition of starch is not farored. 

Analysis of Three Different Compressed Yeast Samples. 

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 

Weight of cake 10.00 oz 15.95 oz 16.27 oz. 

Moisture 74.92% 68.86 % 63.69 % 

Starch none 3.2 " 14.1 ' ' 

Gas producing strength 92.9% S3.5 " 64.3 " 

Dead cells occasional 1—2 " 6—7 ' ' 

Bacteria none 1—2 " 2—3 " 

34 



Sample No. 1 represents a high grade yeast. This is indi- 
cated by its purity, high gas producing strength and perfect 
soundness. While No. 2 is not as good as the previous one, it is 
decidedly better than sample No. 3, which is the poorest kind 
of yeast that a baker could buy, by reason of its high starch 
content, dead cells, bacteria, as well as low gas producing 
strength. 

SHORTENING MATERIAL. 

Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils. 

Lard, oil, etc., are substances that are chemically known as 
fats and are found and obtained from animal sources (lard, 
oleo oil) and vegetable sources (cottonseed oil, corn oil, soy 
bean oil, cocoanut oil). They have a certain definite function 
to perform in bread making and the baking industry, certain 
of which afford advantages of merit and convenience over the 
others. 

Pure lard is made from the fat of the hog, and is white, 
granular in texture and possesses an agreeable and character- 
istic odor and flavor. It is made by rendering in a steam 
kettle either open or closed the entire fat of the hog. This 
is known as kettle-rendered lard. Leaf lard is expressed 
from the fat which surrounds the kidneys and is the choicest 
and highest grade portion of the lard. Lard is graded in 
quality according to its source, and next to leaf-lard in the 
following order is lard from the fat from the hog's back, the 
region of the breast, and that portion cut from small intes- 
tines. Neutral lard is produced by treating "leaf lard" 
by chilling and pressing and subsequent washing with very 
dilute acid. This represents the very best hog fat and is used 
almost exclusively in the manufacture of oleomargarine. 
Oleomargarine is made by churning refined oleo oil — the oil 
remaining after chilling the stearin from fat — with neutral 
lard, milk and some pure butter. Cottonseed oil is extensively 
used in oleomargarine. There is no objection to the use of 
oleomargarine ; it is, as now manufactured, a pure and whole- 
some product. The flavor, however, is hardly so good as that 
of butter, but as a shortening agent, or as a food in general, 
no objection can be made to oleomargarine. 

Butter is the fat obtained from cow's milk and is used in 
cake baking because of its flavor. Butter is not pure fat but 

35 



< "Ml. mi:: Water, riiNcin (curd) sail jiikI ;i sdijiII quantity <i!" 

Miiii^ ? . 1 1 ,- ■ ; 1 1 • . etd tti flavor li due <<> Hs content <>f volatile 
Cutty acids which give ii the peculiar "buttery" flavor! 

OhfJttiOfJ OompOlitiOO of Normal BuM.or. 

Molitura ll.OB 1 

I'm 87.00 " 

< ':i i II .id ■ ' 

\ li (I. Ill •' 

i m klo A> "i 0.70 " 

The United States Dcpartmonl of /Vgrioulture maintain! the 
follow in," stands i<l i or 'nil i cr : 

Moiituro ii B0 ( . 

Pat 32 10" 

I Is -hi !.■■.■■ 

MlIK .11. M! 0.80 " 

Ufa (Mil ■' 

I I. li. \. I.I (I., > " 

All butter thai enters interstate shipmenl thai Palls below 
this standard Is considered Inferior and adulterated. Water 
Is iii' 1 tnoil oommon adulterant, although sail and other fats 
.i i c oil en used 

EUnovatad butttr Is made by washing and steaming butter 
thai lias beoome panoid, and subsequenl ohurning with Fresh 
mill* The flavor of the finished produol is peouliar and is due 
i«> subs! aiiocs thai oannol i><- removed by Hk v prooess of manu 
faoturCi ii is w^^i bu1 little in the baking industry, 

Pats or compounds are used to produce a "riohness" in the 
produoti Butter is employed mostly in oakes, although oleo 
margarine, lard and lard compounds replaoe butter in pari 
lu bread making, lard, cottonseed oil and oompounds arc used 
to " shorten ' ' t he produot. 

ah of i ii<' foregoing inenl ioned fats have various melting 

point-; ;ui(l broadly speaking tllOSC wlmli ;nv solid al ordinary 

temperatures arc railed "fats" while those whioh under this 
condition are liquid reoeive the name of "oils." Many fats 

and oils pOSSeSS a di-.luiii odor ;ind l!:i\or, agreeable or other 

wise, and Indicative of their origin, such characteristics arc 
due, however, to 1111111111- traoes of associated substances, rather 
than to the pure fa1 or od itself, 



Fats and oils are practically insoluble in water but are 
soluble in alcohol. If protected from air and sunlight, they 
remain unchanged Tor a considerable time, but on exposure 
are liable to develop rancidity. This is hastened by the pres- 
ence of bacteria] infection. Once rancid it is useless to try to 
improve them as no restorative or preservative will help to 
bring the oil or Eat back to natural soundness and when used 
in bread or cake the pungent odor will remain even after 
baking. 

In the manufacture of cakes, pure butler should always be 

given preference for its flavor cannot be replaced no matter 
what the compound is. Butter should always be used spar- 
ingly not alone on account of its high price, but for the reason 

that butter is rich, and unless employed in the righl propor- 
tions it will not only cause the cake to Tall in the stage of 
baking but will also produce a heavy cake that is uol easily 

digestible. 

Method for Mixing the Shortening. 

Fats in bread making serve differenl purposes. Either 
lard or a good cottonseed oil can be employed. The shorten 
ing should be accurately weighed and melted down and special 
attention given to distribute it evenly in the dough. The object, 
is to combine the shortening partly with the gluten to make it 
more elastic. It, will not only lend to give the dough what is 
termed "spring" in the oven, but will also SOften and shorten 
both crust and crumb, and help the loaf to retain the moisture 
longer. Shortening should be incorporated in the mix after 
all the other materials have been mixed for a short time. Lard, 
etc., has a stimulating effect upon the gluten and the softer the 
Hour the more shortening should be used. 

YEAST FOODS AND BREAD IMPROVERS. 
What is Yeast Food? 

"Yeast Pood" is a term that has been incorrectly applied 
to designate a material or substance that has a stimulating 

effect upon fermentation. For instance, sugar has I n called 

an yeast food; mall extract is known as an yeast food. A 
substance to be a food must be capable of assimilation by the 
organism fed. Some substances are essential and necessary 
to the growth of yeast and may or may not be yeast foods. IV 

37 



tassium phosphate is necessary for yeast growth, but it is not 
a food. Ammonium salts are converted into proteid material 
and hence are foods. Sugar is not yeast food because it is not 
assimilated by the yeast. True, the kind and amount of sugar 
influences fermentation, but sugar is acted upon by zymase 
secreted by the yeast, and furnishes the energy by which 
the yeast cells are enabled to perform their functions. Malt 
extract is partly a yeast food because it supplies a quantity 
of soluble proteid matter readily assimilated "oy the yeast, 
but the content of maltose and diastase does not necessarily 
characterize it as a yeast food. 

What Is a Bread Improver? 

Bread Improver is the term applied to a material added in 
bread making to improve the quality of the product or to sup- 
plant part of the materials and hence reduce the cost of pro- 
duction. Such substances as milk, milk powder, malt flour, 
special sugars as maltose, corn sugar, also special mineral or 
chemical salts act as improvers. 

Malt or Malt Extract. 

Malt extract is manufactured through concentration of an 
aqueous extract of germinated barley. In the process of pre- 
paring the malt, the barley after being thoroughly cleaned 
is steeped in water, and transferred to the malting floor where 
it is allowed to sprout under careful control. Sufficient mois- 
ture, proper temperature and suitable ventilation or aeration 
of the germinating barley is provided. The proper conditions 
insure a uniform growth and development of the enzymes that 
are desired. After the germination has proceeded to the 
proper point, it is carefully kiln-dried. The kilning operation 
arrests the growth of the germ, but does not destroy the 
action of the enzymes which have developed during germina- 
tion. The dried germinated barley grain, now known as malt, 
is ground, macerated and digested with water and the aqueous 
extract containing the soluble constituents in the malted bar- 
ley is concentrated by evaporation in vacuum apparatus. The 
concentrated extract is more convenient to handle. 

In the germination of the barley, three distinct enzymes 
are active, namely: cytase, diastase and peptase. Cytase dis- 
solves the walls of the starch cell so that the diastase may 
react upon the starch contained within. At the same time the 

38 



proteid material is attacked by the proteolytic enzyme peptase 
and is rendered soluble and available for food for the growing 
germ. In the extract these three enzymes, along with soluble 
nitrogenous bodies, and maltose, which is obtained through the 
action of the diastase upon the starch, are the active sub- 
stances. However, malt extract by its nature favors adultera- 
tion and in few other products are the opportunities for 
buying a product so devoid of the constituents desired as in 
the case of malt extract. To guard against any possible de- 
ception and to detect any inferiority, a chemical analysis 
becomes necessary. 

Parallel Analyses of Two Samples of Malt Extract. 

Water 27.69 % 19.47 % 

Extract 72.31 " 80.53 ' < 

Consisting of 

Maltose 62.27 " 64.39 " 

Dextrine 5.24 < ' 8.99 ' ' 

Albuminoids 3.33 << 553 < < 

Acid (as lactic acid) 0.26 " 0.22 " 

Ash 1.21 " 1.40 ' ' 

Diastatie power (degrees Lintner) 21° 87° 

While these two samples show a great variation in their 
respective diastatie power, these variations may oftimes be 
considerably greater, so that in some instances the extract 
contains practically no diastatie power, while in others this 
may be as high as 100 to even 120°. Therefore, the necessity 
of a correct analysis with regards to diastatie power becomes 
apparent. 

While from the foregoing results, sample No. 1 indicates 
a lower percentage of unfermentable sugar (dextrin) as also 
ash, nevertheless sample labeled No. 2 must be considered 
as being superior by virtue of the fact that the moisture con- 
tained therein is lower, the extract as well as albuminoids, 
and maltose is correspondingly greater and particularly that 
the diastatie value in the latter is considerably higher. 

Aside from the mineral salts (ash) and the maltose found 
in the malt extract (and which have been discussed in pre- 
ceding chapters) the two enzymes diastase and protease or 
peptase are the desirable substances, and of the two, there 
is some question as to their relative advantages and merits. 

39 



Action of Diastase. 

In bread making, the diastase acts upon the starch in the 
flour converting it into maltose and this through maltase and 
zymase, enzymes secreted by yeast, is readily fermented. How- 
ever, this diastatic action is very slow at the temperature of 
fermentation, but in the proof box and for the first ten or 
fifteen minutes in the oven, the action is very vigorous and 
at 150° F. diastase converts 2,000 times its own weight of 
starch in ten minutes. The maltose produced is little fer- 
mented, on account of the elevated temperature, but its pres- 
ence in the baked loaf improves the quality and increases its 
moisture retaining power. 

Action of Peptase. 

Protease or peptase has a solvent action upon the proteid 
material or gluten in the dough. Part of the gluten is digested 
and rendered soluble and as such is readily absorbed by the 
yeast. This soluble proteid material is an excellent yeast 
food and promotes a vigorous fermentation. The gluten 
throughout the dough is softened and rendered more pliable 
and elastic. Protease then favors the development of the 
gluten in the dough and especially so with the "harsh" or 
strong flours. The peptic power and the diastatic power of 
malt extract generally run in parallel so that an extract of 
high degree of diastatic power in most cases has a high degree 
of peptic power. 

How to Use Malt Extract. 

Therefore malt extract should be used cautiously in bread 
making the amount depending upon the strength and stability 
of the flour. In spring wheat flour one to one and a quarter 
pounds is used with every hundred pounds of flour, while more 
than this generally darkens the color of the loaf and favors 
over-fermentation. With weaker flours, smaller quantities and 
extracts of lower diastatic power should be used. Malt flour 
or malt extract if used in excess will promote the tendency 
of the dough to become "sticky" and soften too much. Malt 
extract offers several advantages, however, in that it imparts 
a palatable flavor to the loaf. It furnishes a supply of readily 
assimilable food for the yeast and this food supply, together 
with the maltose, is conducive to vigorous fermentation. The 

40 



quantity of sugar and of yeast, principally the former, must be 
reduced correspondingly. Malt extract imparts a rich brown 
color to the crust of the loaf and increases the quality in 
general. It also keeps the bread moist longer, that is with its 
use the water retaining power is increased. Malt, through 
the action of its diastase on the starch in the dough, produces 
a large quantity of sugar, reducing at the same time the large 
preponderance of starch. This improves the bread as a food 
product inasmuch as the sugars are very easily absorbed by 
the human system. Malt flour, which is milled from the germi- 
nated barley grain has the same property as the extract, and 
both the malt extract and the flour are the best yeast foods 
and bread improvers from all standpoints. 

Milk. 

Another improver added to bread formulas to improve both 
the flavor and general appearance of the loaf is milk. Often- 
times whole milk or skimmed milk is added direct to the mix, 
but the practice for the most part now is to add milk powder 
or condensed milk. From the variety of milk products on 
the market, one is able to select that kind which adapts itself 
most conveniently to his purpose. 

Analysis of Fresh, Unskimmed Milk. 

Albu- Total Milk 
Water Fat Casein men proteids Sugar Ash 
90.32% 6.47% 6.29% 1.44% 6.40% 6.10% 1.21% 
80.32" 1.67" 1.79" .25" 2.07" 2.11" .35" 
87.27" 3.64" 3.02" .53" 3.55" 4.88" .71" 

The specific gravity is of great importance for determining 
whether or not the milk has been adulterated with water. 
When the specific gravity falls below the minimum in above 
table, it is almost certain that water has been added. A 
specific gravity which is below the average may indicate that 
water or skimmed milk has been added, though a very high fat 
content will also tend to lower the specific gravity. In this 
case the fat determination will decide whether the low specific 
gravity is due to adulteration or high fat content. The milk 
fat is undoubtedly the most valuable part of the milk. It 
gives richness to the loaf and cake. The proteins confer moist- 
ness and mellowness. The casein though insoluble in water 





Specific 




Gravity 


Maximum 


..1.0370 


Minimum 


..1.0264 


Average . 


..1.0315 



can not be separated from fresh milk by filtering. It can be 
separated only by acidifying the milk, which may be done 
either by addition of acids or by the formation of lactic acid, 
due to the development of bacteria which convert the milk 
sugar into free lactic acid. As soon as the acidity reaches a 
certain percentage, the casein coagulates and may easily be 
separated from the milk. Rennin precipitates casein from 
milk. Milk freed from casein is practically transparent. For 
the evaluation of milk two points come into consideration, 
namely, the fat content and the amount of total solids, which 
remain after evaporation of the water in the milk. The total 
solids consist of fat, casein, albumen, milk sugar, and min- 
eral matter. The higher the water and the lower the fat 
content, the more inferior will be the quality of the milk. It 
is for this reason that creameries purchase their milk on the 
fat content basis. In order to protect the small purchaser, 
every state in the Union has fixed the milk standards by law. 
Standard milk should contain not less than 3.25% of milk fat, 
and not less than 8.50% of milk solids not fat. 

Skimmed Milk is milk from which a part or practically all 
milk fat has been removed. Centrifugally skimmed milk runs, 
as a rule, lower in fat than milk skimmed in the usual manner. 
The specific gravity of milk after skimming is higher than 
before skimming, and the total solids, not fat, are higher in 
skimmed milk. The standard for skimmed milk is not less 
than 9.25% of milk solids. 

Analysis of Fresh Milk. 

Whole-Milk Skimmed Milk 

Water 87.00 % 89.50 % 

Fat 3.78 " 0.65 ' ' 

Protein (N x 6.38) 4.26" 4.40" 

Milk-Sugar 4.28 " 4.71 ' ' 

Ash 0.68 " 0.74 ' ' 

Condensed Milk is obtained by evaporating a part of the 
water of milk in vacuum apparatus, and is either unsweetened 
or sweetened by addition of cane sugar. As much as 50% 
sugar is sometimes added to condensed milk. The condensed 
milk may be derived either from unskimmed or skimmed and 
according to its source as well as to the amount of water which 

42 



has been evaporated, the composition will show great varia- 
tions. The United States Department of Agriculture has 
adopted the following standards for condensed milk : 

Sweetened condensed or evaporated or concentrated milk, 
is the product resulting from the evaporation of a consider- 
able portion of the water from the whole, fresh, clean, lacteal 
secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more 
healthy cows, properly fed and kept, excluding that obtained 
within fifteen days before and ten days after calving to which 
sugar (sucrose) has been added. It contains, all tolerances be- 
ing allowed for, not less than twenty-eight per cent (28.0%) of 
total milk solids, and not less than eight per cent (8.0%) of 
milk fat. 

Condensed, or evaporated, or concentrated skimmed milk, 
is the product resulting from the evaporation of a considerable 
portion of the water from skimmed milk, and contains, all 
tolerances being allowed for, not less than twenty per cent 
(20.07c) of milk solids. 

Sweetened condensed, or evaporated, or concentrated skim- 
med milk, is the product resulting from the evaporation of a 
considerable portion of the water from skimmed milk to which 
sugar (sucrose) has been added. It contains, all tolerances be- 
ing allowed for, not less than twenty-eight per cent (28.0%) of 
milk solids. 

No admixture of butter fat, butter oil, or any other fat 
than milk-fat is permitted. The fat contents of condensed 
milk derived from unskimmed milk varies from mere traces 
to 10%. Just as in ordinanry milk so in condensed milk the 
value depends on the fat content and total solids. 

Analysis of Condensed Milk. 

Sweetened Condensed Unsweetened Condensed 
Milk Milk 

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 

Water 20.83 % 30.69 % 64.60 % 71.86 % 

Milk solids 31.32 " 29.10 " 25.17 " 28.14 " 

Cane sugar 47.85 " 40.15 " 10.23 " none 

Starch none none plain traces . . none 

Milk sugar 9.57" 11.89" 8.65" 9.84" 

Total protein (Nx6.38). 8.05" 12.26" 6.10" 8.75" 

Fat 12.00" 3.07" 9.13" 8.11" 

Ash 1.80" 2.05" 1.37" 1.53" 

43 



Milk Powders of various kinds are at present on the 
market, derived by nearly complete evaporation of the 
water from whole, half skimmed and skimmed milk. Accord- 
ing to the cpiality of the original milk from which these pow- 
ders are manufactured, the price and the quality of the latter 
will vary. There are on the market whole milk or full cream 
powders containing on an average 30% fat, half-skim milk 
or half cream powders with an average of 15% of fat and 
skim milk or separated milk powder with from 1 to 5% of fat. 
The United States Department of Agriculture has formulated 
the following standards for milk powder: 

Analysis of Milk Powders. 

Whole-Milk Skimmed Milk 

Moisture 3.62 % 8.16 % 

Fat 26.75 " 1.78 ' ' 

Protein (Nx6.38) 32.65" 34.55% 

Milk sugar 31.90" 49.35" 

Ash 5.67 " 6.87 ' « 

Dried milk is the product resulting from the removal 
of water from milk, and contains, all tolerances being allowed 
for, not less than twenty-six per cent (26.0%) of milk fat, 
and not more than five per cent (5.0%) of moisture. 

Dried skimmed milk is the product resulting from the 
removal of water from skimmed milk and contains, all toler- 
ances being allowed for, not more than five per cent (5.0%) of 
moisture. 

Adulteration of Milk. 

The most common form of adulteration is the watering of 
the milk and skimming to such an extent, that the fat con- 
tent sinks below the standard. Ingredients which are some- 
times added to milk are chalk, starch, glycerin, cane sugar, 
coloring matter, preservatives, etc. The coloring matters 
which are mostly used are annatto, caramel and certain aniline 
colors. The preservatives most commonly used, are formal- 
dehyde, boric acid, borax, sodium bicarbonate, salicylic and 
benzoic acids. 

Ascertaining the nutritive value, the following determina- 
tions will ordinarily suffice : fat, protein, ash, milk-sugar, 
water, total solids. Occasionally it is desirable to make a 
distinction in the case of protein between its casein and the 
total albumens present. 

44 



Chemical Analysis of Various Milks. 

Sweetened 



Fresh 

Moisture 87.30 % 

Total solids 12.70 ' ' 

Ash 67" 

Milk sugar 4.53 ' ' 

Protein 3.50 " 

Milk-fat 4.00" 

Cane sugar none 

Undeterniined matter none 



Condensed 
.22.07% 
.77.93" 
. 1.47" 
.11.97" 
. 9.20" 
. 5.50" 
.42.63" 
.none 



Evaporated Dry 


.69.57% 


... 3.63% 


.30.34" 


...96.38" 


. 1.49" 


... 5.67" 


.10.18" 


...31.90" 


. 8.86" 


...32.00" 


. 3.50" 


...12.00" 






. 2.76" 


...14.81" 



From the foregoing analysis the actual value of these 
products, pound for pound, may be readily ascertained. To this 
end we can take into consideration only the actual amount of 
milk fat, milk-sugar and protein present. The moisture, that 
is, the water, in fresh milk should not exceed 89%. In con- 
densed milk as well as in evaporated milks, this amount will 
vary from 25 to 75%, depending on the amount of total solids. 
Therefore, the more total solids found, the lower must be its 
moisture content, and vice versa. The total solids represent 
the fat, protein, ash, milk sugar and sometimes also, as an 
adulterant, cane sugar. 

Milk fat in fresh milk should not fall below 3.25%, while 
the fats in other varieties of milk will vary from 1 to 15%, 
depending upon their concentration. jStarch is not found in 
fresh milk, but frequently is found as an adulterant in con- 
densed milks and particularly in the dry milk powders. This 
amount may vary from 1 to 15%. Cane sugar while serving 
the purpose of a sweetener, is often added to milk powder, 
its chief function being to increase weight and bulk. 

Milk fat is a valuable adjunct in bread and cake making. 
Each 100 pounds of milk when used in the bread dough will 
contain from 3.5 to 4 pounds of milk fat, a quantity sufficient 
to produce the finest quality of bread. 

When milk is used principally to improve the quality of 
bread, at least 1.5% of malt sugar should be added so that 
an adequate amount of gas for leavening the dough will be 
readily produced. It is true that a very small amount of fer- 
mentable sugar is contained in the flour itself, but not suf- 
ficient to effect the desired or necessary fermentation to 
produce a good loaf of bread. For this same reason a certain 



amount of cane sugar should be added to the dough so that 
the bread after baking, has the desired keeping qualities and 
likewise the desired effects upon the flavor. As a whole, the 
use of milk and its products have a beneficial influence upon 
color, both interior and exterior, and further they improve 
the texture and flavor, and produce a thin and crisp crust. 



CHAPTER III. 
Baking Technology. 

THE MAKING OF THE DOUGH. 

Different Methods. 

Modern baking involves, in addition to a thorough under- 
standing of the art of producing a good and uniform loaf of 
bread, a study of the commercial reasons for the adoption of 
certain methods and conditions. It involves also what is most 
important and that is the ability to devise and develop meth- 
ods of manufacture, manipulation, and treatment that afford 
products of the best quality and highest purity. 

Perhaps the very first decision is as to the method of mak- 
ing the doughs, and of tlie accepted systems, there are but the 
sponge and straight dough methods to choose between. But the 
selection or choice of a method embodies some difficulty be- 
cause the advantages that are to be had in one instance may 
be more than counter-balanced by the disadvantages which 
that system entails. 'Therefore in the selection of a method of 
dough making, a full knowledge of the results to be obtained 
through the use of each is necessary in order to determine 
which combines the points of favor that are most desirable in 
the light of conditions peculiar to different localities. 

Sponge Doughs. 

The sponge dough dates back to the period when Rome 
was in the height of its glory, and at that time inspectors 
were in charge of the public bakeries, wherein sponge or 



leaven bread was manufactured. This system, somewhat 
antiquated, has survived, although it has been changed con- 
siderably, largely because conditions have been changed by 
the modern methods of compressed yeast manufacture, flour 
milling, etc. 

The sponge method consists in mixing a portion of the 
flour to be used with water, sugar, and yeast. This mixture 
is called a sponge. It is allowed to ferment a certahi 
length of time according to the kind of sponge, after which 
more water, flour, and sometimes yeast and malt, are added 
and a dough made. A so-called short sponge is allowed 
to ferment from three to six hours, while a long sponge may 
ferment as long as six to ten hours, in each case, however, the 
quantity of yeast and water will be varied. If to a sponge 
all the water that is necessary for making up the dough is 
added at one time, it is called a batter-sponge. 

In setting a sponge experience has shown that a strong 
flour should be used on account of its content of strong gluten, 
which, through the vigorous fermentation, is readily devel- 
oped. However, when doughing up, a weaker or softer flour 
should be used, because the dough is allowed to ferment gen- 
erally about two hours, during which time the gluten in a 
strong flour would not develop properly. 

The flour used in a sponge method is apt to be overfer- 
mented in part while the flour used in doughing up would 
be under-fermented, thus producing somewhat of a colora- 
tion in the baking process. 

A custom among bakers for a long time was to make a 
long sponge and use the same sponge for making up several 
varieties of bread, thus saving time, but this practice in the 
light of commercial competition, has not proven satisfactory 
because it necessitated a sponge standing a long time before 
being worked up. That is, the first bread made therefrom 
will be made from underfermented sponge, while the last por- 
tion would be much over ripe. A short sponge should break 
not more than once, while a long sponge, which should be 
set stiffer because it slackens considerably during fermenta- 
tion, can be allowed to break twice. 

A sponge requires less sugar, yeast, and shortening, and 
the bread keeps moist longer than bread made from a straight 



dough. The increased acidity of a sponge dough imparts a 
flavor to the bread which is distinctly peculiar although not un- 
pleasant. Sponge produces a larger loaf on account of good 
strong fermentation and the added fresh supply of yeast 
food in doughing up. Sponge can be held longer when ripe, 
while a straight dough has to be worked up when ready. 
In doughing up in the sponge method, lower grade of differ- 
ent flours may be used, which lends itself to a selection of a 
variety of flours both as to quality and kind. Sponge doughs 
should go through the brake or rolls as this produces a loaf 
of better texture and color. 

Straight Doughs. 

A dough in which all of the ingredients necessary for the 
entire batch are added to the mixture and mixed in one 
operation, is called a straight dough. This system is based 
upon the theory that a strong fermentation may be obtained 
by an added supply of yeast, sugar, and yeast foods, such 
as malt extract, which promote a vigorous fermentation and 
rapidly develop the gluten. Straight doughs are more eco- 
nomical in one way, because the mixing is done in one opera- 
tion, thus saving time. 

With the straight dough process, the fermentation may be 
very accurately controlled, although it is necessary to work 
up the doughs immediately upon their becoming ready. An 
interval of a half hour in the fermentation of a straight 
dough produces a much more manifest change in the quality 
of the resulting bread than would the same interval in a 
sponge dough. 

The straight dough requires more mixing, which is con- 
ducive to a rapid development of the gluten, while a sponge 
dough should not be mixed too strenuously because the 
gluten is properly developed by the vigorous fermentation of 
the sponge. The conditions of fermentation in a short straight 
dough may be regulated more conveniently because atmos- 
pherical conditions of temperature, pressure, and humidity 
are not prone to change as much in a few hours as they 
might in a longer period such as is given to a sponge. 

The flavor due to a sponge dough is a natural one; in the 
straight dough, however, since yeast foods and improvers are 

48 



added, the flavor is influenced by the nature of these added im- 
provers and, although it may be considered somewhat artificial, 
the result is a more palatable loaf. By the straight dough 
method a much sweeter flavored and richer product may be 
obtained, and since quality and flavor are the predominating 
factors which promote sales, it is considered advisable, if 
the proper facilities in a bakery are to be had, to adhere to 
a straight dough system. 

"Sauerteig." 

The "sour dough" or "sauerteig" system hardly merits 
consideration, since it is so little used in this country 
at the present time. The method consists in making a soft 
sponge, using a pound of dough from the previous day's 
batch, mixed with 2 or 3 quarts of water, without the addition 
of salt, sugar, etc. This soft sponge is allowed to ferment 
two and a half to three hours at 85° to 90°F. — and often as 
long as six or seven hours — and used as the sponge in the 
mix. After doughing up the dough is allowed to rise only 
about one hour. It is then scaled, moulded, and proofed, and 
baked on the oven bottom. It is seldom panned. 

This system gives a coarse dark product, with a distinct 
and pronounced flavor that cannot be called mild and sweet. 
The only advantage that this method affords is that no mate- 
rials other than flour, water and salt are used. The baker 
who uses sour dough generally maintains that his bread is 
made without yeast, whereas under the microscope the "sauer 
teig" is shown to be teeming with bacteria, cultured and wild 
yeasts. The inferiority of the product is largely due to the 
foreign infection that is carried in the innumerable wild 
yeasts and bacteria that are present in the sour dough and 
over which the baker can exercise so little control. As a 
system, it is to be condemned because of the inferiority of 
the product and the antiquated method of procedure. 

FERMENTATION. 

Fermentation of dough is a question that demands more 
consideration than has been given it. In fact, its importance 
has not been realized and largely because there has been no 
effective means of determining the proper degree of fermenta- 



tion, the result has been a difficulty to maintain a uniformity 
of product. Fermentation may be defined in a general way 
as being the chemical changes associated with and effected by 
the development of micro-organisms. 

Alcoholic Fermentation. 

Of the kinds or types of fermentation that are met in the 
fermentation of bread dough, only one is to be desired, and 
that is called alcoholic fermentation, and which produces alco- 
hol and carbon dioxide from the sugar. The production of car- 
bon dioxide has already been discussed under the subjects of 
Sugars and Enzymes and little will be said of the me- 
chanical action in fermentation. Fermentation produced by 
pure yeast is desirable, but other kinds of organisms may de- 
velop products that are not only undesirable but may be 
ruinous. 

Lactic Acid Fermentation. 

Lactic acid fermentation is often a source of annoyance to 
the baker in that it produces a high acidity in the bread. It is 
quite generally found in doughs that have been fermented at 
too high a temperature or in old doughs. Yeast fermentation 
is best carried on at a temperature of 78 to 82° F., and any 
temperature above this promotes the activity of lactic acid 
bacteria. Lactic acid in small amounts aids in developing 
the gluten by partially dissolving it and softening it. Glucose, 
cane sugar, and maltose all are readily decomposed into lactic 
acid under favorable conditions. Milk sugar or lactose is very 
susceptible to lactic acid fermentation. Lactose is converted 
by the enzyme lactase occurring in yeast into d-galactose and 
d-glucose (dextrose), the former being readity fermented by 
lactic acid bacteria with the formation of lactic acid. Lactic 
acid fermentation occurs simultaneously with alcoholic fer- 
mentation, but proceeds slowly at the relatively low tem- 
perature (78-82° F.) where the activity of the yeast is at its 
maximum. A small quantity of lactic acid beside favor- 
ing the development of the gluten in the dough, imparts 
a "nutty" flavor to the bread which, if not too pronounced, 
is very desirable. Larger quantities of lactic acid developed 
through fermentation decrease the palatableness of the loaf, 
impair its quality and indicate improper fermentation of 
the dough. 

50 



Butyric and Acetic Fermentation. 

The formation of butyric acid through development of 
butyric acid organisms is favored by the same conditions 
that promote lactic acid fermentation, although the butyric 
fermentation generally follows the lactic acid fermentation. 
Butyric acid imparts a disagreeable flavor and odor to bread 
and its presence is extremely objectionable. Acetic fermenta- 
tion is always subsequent to alcoholic fermentation and effects 
the conversion of alcohol into acetic acid after prolonged 
fermentation or after the supply of yeast food is so diminished 
that the yeast is no longer in a vigorous and healthy condi- 
tion. Abnormal fermentation may be avoided through the use 
of strong and vigorous yeast, proper control of fermenting 
conditions and a good supply of available yeast food. 

Viscous Fermentation. 

The most objectionable and most to be feared infection 
that may enter into a bake shop is known as viscous fer- 
mentation and which produces ropy bread. Hot weather 
during the summer is particularly favorable for rope 
development and once an infection is found, it is difficult to 
eradicate it. Hope manifests itself in from twenty-four to 
forty-eight hours after baking and is due to a spore-forming 
organism that is very resistant to high temperatures. The 
spore withstands the temperature of the loaf in baking and 
develops and grows after the bread is cooled. The bread 
develops a peculiar odor, the interior becomes brownish in 
spots and becomes moist and sticky. The gummy interior 
may be drawn out into long silky threads which gives the 
name of "rope" to this condition. Rope organisms are 
generally introduced through the flour, and there is more 
danger in the use of low grade flour than with the better 
grades. Quite frequently the spores are found in cracks and 
crevices and in the troughs only awaiting favorable condi- 
tions for development. 

When ropiness is found to be present in the bakery, steps 
should be taken immediately to ascertain the source of infec- 
tion, but while this is being investigated a series of ''first- 
aid" measures should be adopted to grant temporary relief 
from its development. All doughs should be acidulated with 



acetic or lactic acid, and acetic acid is to be recommended 
only because it is cheaper. Steps should be taken to procure 
flour known to be sound. The content of salt should be in- 
creased as also the yeast and yeast foods, the object being 
not only to shorten but to insure a more vigorous fermenta- 
tion. The bread should be baked longer and drier as a mois^ 
and sodden interior is conducive to development of rope. After 
baking, the bread should be cooled quickly and if stored for 
any length of time should be kept cool. Wrapping is to be 
avoided if possible as the retention of excess moisture favors 
after-fermentation. The execution of the above recommen- 
dations will control and inhibit the growth of rope, but a com- 
plete disinfection of the shop is absolutely essential. The 
services of an expert, acquainted with "rope" are to be pre- 
ferred so that the source of infection may be definitely located 
and proper measures inaugurated to stamp out the disease. 

Humidity. 

Principally among the many varying factors which enter 
into bread making, each of which has its influence upon the 
quality of the loaf, are temperature and humidity. The 
need and advantages of temperature control have been 
exploited sufficiently so that every baker now appreciates 
that there is an optimum temperature for fermentation of his 
dough. Just as important and advantageous to the baker is 
the accurate control of the humidity or moisture content of 
the air in his bake shop, and experiments have conclusively 
shown that without proper humidity, the baker is only ' ' trust- 
ing to luck" that his product will be uniform from day to 
day. 

The term relative humidity is used to express the per- 
centage amount of moisture or water vapor that air at any 
definite temperature contains. For instance, air containing 
no moisture has 0% humidity while if saturated the humidity 
is 100%. Furthermore, air at any temperature is able to con- 
tain in actual amounts more moisture than air at any lower 
temperature. Air saturated at 80° F. with water vapor when 
cooled to a lower temperature would immediately precipitate 
out moisture in the form of rain or dew. No air is absolutely 
free from moisture. Even the air of the deserts has a relative 
humidity of about 20%. But if air on a cold winter day is 

52 



led into a bake shop wherein the temperature is 80° F., the 
humidity falls below that of the air of the driest desert. The 
apparatus for determining the relative humidity is very sim- 
ple and consists quite generally of a "dry" and a "wet" 
bulb thermometer, and from the difference in their tempera- 
ture readings, the per cent humidity is easily calculated.* 
There are also direct reading hygrometers found on the market. 

Experiments have shown that the proper relative humidity 
to maintain in a bakery is not less than 70% nor more than 
80%. A difference of ten per cent affects the period of fer- 
mentation on a five-hour dough about 8 minutes, so that on a 
day in Avhich the humidity is as low as 30%, the time of fer- 
mentation has to be lengthened by approximately 40 minutes. 
If the humidity runs high the period of fermentation should 
be shortened correspondingly. This same effect has been 
observed upon hot sultry summer afternoons preceeding a 
storm when the doughs come fast. 

Perhaps the greatest source of annoyance to the baker 
has been due to the encrusting of the dough while fermenting 
in the troughs and this upon consideration is more serious 
than the baker suspects. The hardened crust is due to the 
evaporation of water from the surface of the dough and the 
lower the humidity of the fermenting room, the more rapid 
the evaporation and the heavier the crust formed. The crust 
cannot be eradicated once formed and appears as hard lumps 
in the baked loaf which are especially objectionable and ob- 
noxious to the consumer. Proper control of the humidity pre- 
vents evaporation from the surface of the dough and elimi- 
nates any possibility of encrusting. Furthermore, the evapo- 
ration is a source of actual loss to the baker. Often in a one- 
barrel batch of dough the evaporation of the water from its 
surface amounts to as much as 6 pounds during the period of 
fermentation so that the baker is losing that amount that 
might be made into bread. The heavy crust formed retards 
fermentation because the dough is prevented from rising to 
the fullest extent. The gluten is not properly stretched and 
developed, and hence the volume of the loaf is sure to be lower. 
To counteract the hindrance due to the crust, more power 



See Appendix, table of humidity. 

53 



has to be furnished in the form of increased supply of yeast, 
foods so that another source of loss results. 

The consuming public have a right to demand bread of 
good quality, and uniformity of good quality is the best 
asset that any baker can possibly have. There is no longer 
any question of the effect of humidity upon bread making nor 
of the advantages which proper regulation afford, and the 
progressive baker will readily see the merits of humidity 
control. 

Mechanical Factors Affecting Fermentation. 

Other than influences of atmospherical conditions of tem- 
perature, pressure, humidity, etc., there are numerous other 
mechanical factors that affect fermentation. Certain manipu- 
lations favor while other conditions of operation are adverse 
to fermentation. For instance, a slack dough ferments more 
rapidly than a stiff dough largely because there is a larger 
supply of yeast food, sugar, etc., in solution and this furnishes 
readily available material for the yeast, Again, doughs that 
are coming up too fast are given more space in the trough 
while crowding the dough hastens the fermentation. 

Another instance wherein the method of handling the 
doughs effects fermentation is in the time of punching or 
"cutting over." The dough is worked — "punched "or "cut- 
over" — when it becomes light in order that the subsequent 
rising may properly stretch and develop the gluten. Working- 
down effects an equal distribution of the gas cells beside giv- 
ing an impetus to fermentation. In "cutting over," the 
dough is so distributed that all portions are fermented evenly. 
The temperature of the dough is evened up and the fermenta- 
tion proceeds more uniformly throughout. The "cut" is made 
by pulling the dough over the sides of the trough, first from 
one side and then the other and has the effect of folding the 
dough over upon itself. 

Sometimes, in order to be sure that the dough is fermented 
evenly, portions are cut from it and spread out in another 
trough, successive portions being spread out on the preceding 
ones until all the dough has been transferred. This perhaps 
is the better method but takes more time and is not so con- 
venient. 

54 



The first punch should be carefully timed and used as an 
index of the total period for fermentation. The interval of 
time between setting the dough and the first cut should con- 
stitute three-fifths of the total fermenting period so that on a 
five-hour dough, the first cut should be made three hours after 
setting. On a four-hour dough, the first cut should come two 
hours and twenty-five minutes after mixing. The custom has 
been generally to allow only half the fermenting period before 
the first cut, but it is better to have the dough slightly over- 
ripe because it puts more "life" into it. "A "young" dough 
or one punched too soon, never "catches up with itself" and 
behaves unseemly during its course in the bakeshop. 

New flour not adequately aged has a tendency to slacken 
and to work young. This is due to the activity of the enzymes 
present in the flour. If it becomes absolutely necessary to use 
freshly milled flour, best results are to be obtained through 
the use of more salt, more shortening and giving the dough 
less fermentation but punching the dough more often. The 
increased salt reduces the activity of the enzymes in the flour 
while the shortening acts as a stimulant to the gluten. Less 
fermentation should be given the dough because of the danger 
of over-developing the gluten which in new flour is not ma- 
tured. In punching the dough more often, it is not allowed 
to rise to its maximum which would over-develop the gluten, 
while the numerous punches improve the grain and texture. 

PANNING AND PROOFING. 

Importance of Proofing. 

Improper proofing is the most common error made whereby 
all the effort spent in properly mixing and fermenting the 
dough may go for nothing. The best materials prepared under 
the most exacting control cannot be made into a loaf of good 
bread unless attention is given to the proofing of the dough 
in the pans. Proofing is just as important as fermenting, and 
the quality of bread in many bakeries is impaired because due 
regard is not given the dough in the proof box. 

Method of Panning. 

The accepted procedure in panning consists in dividing 
the dough into portions of such size desired to make one loaf, 

55 



rounding 1 up that portion so that there is formed on the 
exterior a thin skin. This ball of dough is given a first 
proof of ten to twenty minutes at the temperature of the room 
and then moulded, placed in pans, and put into the proof- 
box or steam-closet for final proofing. When sufficiently 
proofed or light, it is baked. 

In many bakeries, the manipulation of the dough is done 
in part if not entirely by machinery. A mechanical divider 
automatically cuts off portions of the desired weight and once 
adjusted accurately divides the mass of dough into pieces that 
later become loaves. Quite generally, the dough, before going 
to the divider, is run through a brake and worked several 
times. This is necessary for all sponge dough and is of ad- 
vantage when straight dough method is used. This brake 
effects an even distribution of gas cells, produces uniform 
texture and improves the color of the loaf. 

Moulding of Loaf. 

The dividing process produces two "raw" ends so that 
in order to stop the bleeding it is necessary to round up 
the portion of dough and to put a skin over the exterior so 
that the carbondioxide gas does not break through but is 
retained by this enveloping skin. The first proofing permits 
of the dough recovering from the shock of the divider and 
allows for the formation of a small quantity of gas so that it 
may be easily moulded. The "rounding up" or "balling up" 
is generally done by hand although larger outputs necessitate 
machines. The balls of dough are put into a chest of drawers 
or in trays so that they are kept covered, during the first 
proofing of ten to twenty minutes. Quite generally in the 
larger bakeries, the preliminary proof is given by conveying 
the balls of dough direct from the rounder and carried in 
individual canvas pockets back and forth through an over- 
head case or long cabinet until sufficiently proofed. After 
the doughs recover sufficiently and possess some "life," they 
are moulded, and put in pans. The gas in the dough permits 
of tight or loose moulding depending upon the kind of bread 
being made. Moulding is quite generally done by machine. 

Proofing. 

After moulding, the loaves are placed in a closet heated with 
live steam at a temperature of 95 to 105° F. for the final 

56 



proofing, which requires from, thirty minutes /to an hour 
according to conditions and kind of bread. 

Quite often, however, the dough must stand in the proof 
box for longer time than would be necessary to obtain proper 
proof, and the baker at the same time is distressed because his 
bread comes from the oven poor in quality. One of two condi- 
tions is generally at fault. In colder seasons of the year when 
the temperature of the shop is comparatively low, the baker 
makes a practice of setting his doughs somewhat warmer in 
order to correct in a way for the low temperature of the shop. 
A large mass of dough is to some extent heated by the activity 
of the yeast during fermentation that by the time the mix 
goes to the bench, the dough is not so much cooled as to show 
any effect of the low temperature of the room. However, 
when the dough is divided, each small piece is exposed to the 
chill of the room and of the machines, and the "shock" is so 
great that the yeast does not recover very easily. 

Yeast and doughs should never be subjected to sudden 
changes in temperature, either high or low, because the activ- 
ity is so retarded that even though it is again brought to the 
optimum temperature, the action is very slow. Sudden 
changes in temperature effect in a measure a paralysis of the 
yeast and heroic treatment can little help the situation. The 
result of the sudden cooling is that the bread does not proof 
properly, even when left for a long time in the proof box, and 
the quality of the loaf is thus affected. The slow proofing is 
conducive to foreign fermentation inasmuch as the activity of 
the yeast is depressed, and as the high temperature in the 
proof-box favors the development of lactic and butyric acid 
bacteria, the dough is apt to become sour. Thus, the import- 
ance of proper attention to the proofing is very evident. 

Improper proof may be had in a dough in which the supply 
of readily available yeast food has been so depleted that the 
yeast is no longer vigorous, and foreign fermentation crowds 
out the alcoholic fermentation. This has the same effect as 
shown above and produces a loaf of poor quality and flavor. 

Relation of Proofing to Baking. 

In proofing of bread, proper regard for oven tempera- 
ture must be had. Over-proofed dough should be baked in a 
quick oven, or if the oven is not quite ready by not being 



hot enough, the loaves should have less proof. In other words, 
slow ovens for underproofed dough and short proof for 
"slow" ovens. This is readily apparent when we stop to con- 
sider that an over-proofed dough has risen near its maximum 
and is in danger of falling". A "quick" or hot oven forms 
a crust over the surface of the dough which allows for the 
"spring" and at the same time lends support to the loaf. In 
a "slow" oven the reverse is true. The formation of the crust 
is delayed until the proper expansion of the loaf. Over- 
proofed loaves have a coarser texture but a larger volume 
while under-proofing produces a denser texture and lower 
volume. 

In the manufacture of the split loaf, only half-proofed or 
two-thirds proof is given it. This with plenty of steam effects 
a good "break." The split effect may be imparted by placing 
two thin loaves side by side in the pan or by pressing down 
the middle of the loaf from end to end with a scraper or 
similar instrument. The most effective method is to slash 
quickly and deeply the loaf from end to end with a sharp 
knife held not perpendicularly, but slightly inclined. Proper 
proof, experience in cutting, and plenty of steam are necessary 
in the production of a good split loaf. 

BAKING. 

Proper Temperature for Bread-Baking. 

The temperature necessary to bake bread is dependent 
upon the kind of bread, the formula used in making the 
dough, the size of the loaf and the personal preference and 
prejudice of the bakery foreman or superintendent. The 
greatest source of difference of opinion is due to the inac- 
curacy of the ordinary oven pyrometer in that a correct read- 
ing of the exact baking temperature cannot be obtained. 

Pyrometer. 

The ordinary pyrometer is not a thermometer but only an 
indicator. Quite generally the pyrometer is inexpensively con- 
structed and is so placed that the actual average temperature 
of the OA'en cannot be obtained. As an indicator, however, it is 
indispensable because when once the proper baking heat is 
reached, that same oven heat is attained when again the pyro- 

58 



meter indicates the same point. Again, one oven may be quite 
right when the pyrometer registers 450° F., whereas another 
oven bakes properly when the pyrometer registers 525° F. and 
yet both may be at the same heat. It is not necessary to know 
the exact temperature but to know that the oven is or is not 
ready when a certain temperature is indicated. 

Time for Baking. 

Experience has shown that the actual temperature neces- 
sary to bake one-pound loaves in tin is 450° F. for 30 minutes. 
This pre-supposes an oven loaded to capacity and if the oven 
is not full, slightly lower temperature should be used. A 
single loaf or only a few loaves would burn badly if placed 
in a large oven at 450° F. Larger loaves should be baked 
correspondingly longer and at lower temperature. Three- 
pound tinned bread should be baked at 325 to 350° for about 
an hour and a quarter to an hour and a half. For hearth 
bread, slightly higher temperature is required than for panned 
bread. 

Loss of Weight in Baking. 

Pan bread, in baking, loses about one-eighth of its weight 
due to the water evaporated. A loaf scaled at 16 ounces 
should weigh very close to 14 ounces when baked, two ounces 
of water having been baked out. Bread baked quickly at a 
higher temperature loses less water than when baked at a 
longer period at a lower temperature. This must be taken 
into consideration when the tolerance in the net weight of 
bread allowed by regulations is very low. The loss in baking 
of hearth bread is much greater, while the loss is much less 
when twin loaves are made in one pan. If bread is to be used 
on the day that it is baked, it should be baked more thoroughly 
than when for use the following day. 

Use of Steam in Oven. 

The practice of using steam in the oven has been adopted 
almost universally. Steam produces a thin crust, permits of 
full spring of the loaf in the oven, prevents cracking and 
improves the appearance of the loaf in general. In baking the 
split-loaf, steam is quite as essential as the heat of the oven, 
while with hearth bread, steam is quite necessary. 

59 



Steam under a gauge pressure of 15 to 20 pounds should 
be used. The action of the steam depends upon the condensa- 
tion of a small amount of moisture upon the surface of the 
loaves. From high pressure steam, which has a correspond- 
ingly high temperature, the condensation is not sufficient to 
precipitate the necessary quantity of moisture, and as a result 
no effect of the steam is to be had. In fact, steam at 50 pounds 
gauge pressure, and which has a temperature of 298° F., is of 
little better service than no steam. 

The film of moisture formed upon the surface of the loaves 
delays the formation of the crust so that the loaf attains its 
full volume. It also keeps the surface crust from drying out 
and produces an elegant bloom. In the split-loaf type of 
bread, a large quantity of low pressure steam is necessary in 
order to produce effectively the crack or break in the top 
crust. 

Too much steam, however, softens the top of the loaf, caus- 
ing it to flatten out and producing a dense ring next to the 
crust. Often too much steam accounts for the large blisters 
that appear in the crust of the bread. In baking hearth 
bread, steam should be admitted to the oven before loading, 
during, and for about five minutes after. The steam should be 
turned off and the damper opened, and allowed to be open for 
five minutes, after which it is closed during the remaining 
period of baking. Too much steam causes the loaves to run 
together or crack along the sides in attempting to "kiss." 



CHAPTER IV. 
General Discussion. 

SCORING OF BREAD. 

Method of Scoring. 

The method that has been used in scoring bread depends 
largely upon personal ideas and the standpoint from which 
the bread is to be judged. By some bakers, quality may be 
given the most weight while other bakers strive to produce 
a loaf of large volume and naturally their bread score card 
would differ. Again, commercially made bread cannot be 
scored as the housewife's bread because we don't expect the 
latter to be in a position to control conditions as in the bake 
shop, no matter how small. Bread offered for sale to the public 
is carefully scrutinized and all the points whereby the choice 
of the public is affected must be taken into consideration in 
preparing a score card according to which "baker's bread" 
may be scored. 

Score Card. 

Following is a score card in which quality bread rather 
than quantity bread is given a decided preference. It corre- 
sponds very closely with the average of a series of score cards 
submitted by many bakers, and for that reason may be called 
representative of commercial conditions inasmuch as the baker 
has used the same card in scoring his own and his competitors 
as well. On a 100 points or 100 per cent basis the factors are 
given the following values or scores : 

General appearance 15 

Color of Crumb 10 

Texture 15 

Grain 10 

Flavor (taste 20, odor 15) 35 

Loaf Volume 15 

100 

The general appearance includes the general shape, sym- 
metry of form, crown, color and bloom of crust ; and it is these 
factors that should be given first consideration in a contest 
concerning a large series of loaves. 

61 



Color of crumb of the cut loaf is very important inasmuch 
as the grade of the flour and the general conditions of fermen- 
tation influence the color, but the color of a loaf without a 
standard for comparison would not be duly appreciated. The 
color also is affected by the grain, a close and even grain caus- 
ing the color to appear whiter. 

Texture is often taken to include "grain" or to be even 
"grain" itself. Grain indicates the distribution of gas cav- 
ities, their size and number, and might be called porosity. Tex- 
ture includes the elasticity and is determined by pressing the 
cut edges of a loaf together or by pressing with the tips of the 
fingers, and noting the spring in resuming its original shape. 
Under texture is grouped the "lightness" although the 
"grain" also indicates to some degree the lightness of the loaf. 
The "feel" as the back of the index finger — that part between 
the last joint and the nail — is rubbed over the cut surface, as 
well as the "sheen" when observed from an obtuse angle, 
may suggest velvet to the operator and a soft "velvety" sur- 
face indicates good quality. The crust, whether brittle, crisp, 
tough or leathery, should be scored as texture. 

The flavor, after a definite standard has once been formed, 
is of prime importance and induces the consumer to favor one 
product as against another. Under flavor, the odor of the 
bread is scored. The personal element is stronger here than 
with any other factor in scoring because often a decided flavor 
is liked as compared to a mild and mellow flavor such as is 
obtained from a short straight dough method. 

Loaf volume, except in communities wherein the size of the 
loaf, and not quality necessarily, appeals to the purchaser, has 
little importance except that it indicates proper development 
of the gluten in the fermentation and proofing, as well as 
proper moulding. 

HOLES IN BREAD. 

There are many factors that are associated with the manu- 
facture of bread that cannot be sufficiently standardized by 
definite laws and rules so that one is enabled to assure him- 
self of uniform results in bread quality. Of constant annoy- 
ance to the baker is the prevalence of holes in bread. The 



causes of these are several and are due to the improper fer- 
mentation or to the actual physical handling of the dough 
itself. Holes may be produced in bread through over fermen- 
tation and to this is due the greatest majority of cases, if the 
gluten in the dough has been fermented too long or too strenu- 
ously it becomes weakened, loses its elasticity and tenacity, and 
the thin walls of the gluten "cells" or pockets, being fragile, 
become disrupted so that several gas cells unite to form a hole. 
The condition usually manifests itself in the proof box and 
often results in a complete breaking down of the gluten with 
the formation of holes two to three inches in diameter. 

.Sometimes cases are found in which under-fermented dough 
contains holes. This is little different as far as the cause is 
concerned from a case of over-fermented dough. In this case 
the gluten has not been sufficiently fermented so as to develop 
its elasticity and tenacity, and therefore cannot enmesh and 
retain the carbon dioxide gas. This can best be demonstrated 
by taking a series of portions from one large dough at 
regular half hour intervals, moulding, proofing and baking. 
The first loaves will show very poor texture and contain many 
larger or smaller holes. 

Holes in bread may be caused by the inadequate breaking 
down of the sponge when doughing up and especially is this 
true when using a weaker flour in doughing. The imperfect 
mixing leaves portions of the sponge intact in the dough, and 
the gluten in these portions becomes over-developed, losing its 
elasticity which permits of the formation of holes in the 
loaf. 

Often the method of moulding, combined with the proofing 
process, produces poor texture. Too much pressure or uneven 
distribution of pressure by the fingers have a retarding action 
upon the proofing and the uneven proof gives rise to holes. 
The amount of pressure and working of the dough in mould- 
ing should be regulated according to the dough, the amount 
of fermentation it has had, and the strength and elasticity of 
the gluten in the dough. Often in pounding the gas from the 
dough in moulding, the loaves are blistered so that the holes 
occur slightly beneath the crust. 

The causes that produce holes are generally due to care- 
lessness, inexperience or improper moulding, combined with 



over-fermentation, and all flours, and all bread formulas are 
subject to their development. Using proper manipulation, any 
sound flour, however weak or strong, can be made to produce 
a loaf of even grain and free from holes. 

DEGREE OF FINENESS OF FLOUR AND ITS EFFECTS 
UPON ITS COMPOSITION AND BAKING QUALITY. 

Bakers and millets as well as chemists have for a long time 
held that the granular feel of flour served as a good index 
of its quality and character. The flours that were granular or 
gritty or sharp when rubbed between the fingers were sup- 
posed to be good quality and declared to be so, whereas flours 
of softer texture were declared to be inferior. 

Uniform Granulation. 

In the analysis of flour, use had been made of a nest of 
eight flour sieves numbering consecutively from 9 to 1G, 
through which a weighed quantity of flour was bolted. If on 
three adjacent sieves 75% of the sample remained, the flour 
was considered uniformly granulated and the inference was 
that uniform granulation permitted of an even fermentation of 
the flour when made into dough. 

At one time this test may have been sufficient to char- 
acterize a flour, but with modern milling methods, which per- 
mit of the most elastic system as far as the method of mani- 
pulation is concerned, the infallibility of the test has been so 
frequently refuted by facts that it is gradually being relegated 
to the position it merits. 

Recent Experiments. 

Recent experiments have shown, however, that the quality 
and grade of flour does not depend upon the degree of fine- 
ness necessarily, but that a fraction of the same degree in fine- 
ness differs in quality and composition as compared to another 
fraction of finer or coarser particles even when both are de- 
rived from the same wheat or separated from the same flour. 

In the experiments, a series of commercial brands of flour 
as well as several flours of known history, having been milled 
from known varieties of wheat in an experimental mill, were 
bolted through a nest of four sieves numbered respectively 

64 



15, 18, 20 and 21 standard silk. This produced from the orig- 
inal flour five fractions of flour, since part remained on each 
sieve and a portion passed through No. 21. 

The several fractions, together with the original flour used 
as a standard, were carefully analyzed, baking tests made, and 
the results compared. 

Results. 

The average results of all the experiments indicated that 
one-third of the sample bolted through the No. 21 sieve, while 
85% passed through the No. 16 sieve which is much more 
finely meshed than the finest flour silk ordinarily used in any 
mill, viz : No. 10 to No. 12, and that on the three intermediate 
sieves, No. 18, No. 20 and No. 21, there remained approxi- 
mately 7, 12 and 30 per cent respectively. The four coarser 
separates show quite similar qualities and characteristics while 
the finest fraction stands apart strikingly. The four coarse 
separates produce bread of better quality than the original 
flour. The volume, texture, grain and color of the loaves are 
better than the original, while the protein, absorptive capacity, 
and expansion are higher and the ash content and acidity 
much lower than the original flour. The protein of flour 
passing the No. 21 shows peculiar properties in that the 
quality of the loaf is much inferior to that of the original. 
The loaf volume, color, texture, grain are woefully low while 
the gluten is more than 2 per cent lower than the original 
flour and the expansion and absorption much lower, and the 
ash content and acidity much higher. 

The results of these experiments indicate that the flour 
is much finer than might be inferred through the use of No. 
10 to No. 12 bolting cloth by the miller. The granulation 
test as formerly used is not applicable to modern milled flour. 
The extent and character of the finest fraction indicates that 
the finest flour is not always the best in quality as is generally 
held. Furthermore, the miller has been given a method where- 
by he may measure the extent of attrition flour and be able 
to find out when he has reduced this to a minimum. The 
experiments have suggested that proper manipulation may 
result in the separation of a lower grade of flour from a patent 
grade thereby obtaining an excellent patent portion. 



FLOUR SUBSTITUTES. 

On account of the high price of wheat as compared to other 
cereals, and also in an effort to find a commercial source for 
the disposal of a series of products, there have been tried 
numerous experiments to find suitable substitutes for wheat 
flour. 

Since no other cereal, except rye and that only to a slight 
extent, possesses gluten, which is the constituent that renders 
wheat flour valuable as a bread-making material, it can be said 
that any other materials, however closely resembling wheat 
flour superficially and which might be classed as a substitute, 
should really be considered as an adulterant. The present 
existing "Mixed Flour Law" has proven ample protection 
against the frauds which without it might easily be perpe- 
trated against the consuming public. 

Numerous products have been made into flour and sub- 
stituted in part for wheat flour, among which are potato- 
flour, potato-starch, corn-starch, corn-flour, rice-flour, cotton- 
seed meal, peanut meal, soybean meal, etc. Of these, only the 
products made from corn, potato or rice, as far as color is 
concerned may well be used. Peanut meal with wheat flour 
makes a very palatable loaf, as does cottonseed meal, but 
the color mitigates against them so that neither can hardly 
become popular. Rice flour has been found of use in pastry 
and cake baking, and although it reduces the nutritive value 
of the product, nevertheless, it improves its appearance 
quality. 

Corn starch and potato starch have no place in a loaf of 
bread. Addition of either to wheat flour is a plain and evident 
case of adulteration of wheat flour with a substance (starch 
itself) of which the flour has already a large excess. In in- 
creasing the quantity of starch, the content of the other 
valuable constituents such as gluten, mineral substances, is 
correspondingly reduced and hence the nutritive value low- 
ered. If corn starch or potato starch were any other color 
than white, their use as a substitute would hardly have been 
suggested. Under certain conditions wheat flour has been 
mixed with other materials without seriously impairing the 
quality, but no substance when used in as small amount as 10 



per cent fails to have a deleterious effect upon the quality of 
the finished product. 

The Use of Corn Flakes with Malt Extract in Bread-Making. 

Corn flakes are manufactured by passing corn, after the 
removal of the hull and the germ, between hot rolls. The 
corn before going to the rolls is cooked so that the starch 
is gelatinized. The pressure of the rolls is sufficient to flatten 
out the corn in the shape of flakes and the heat of the rolls 
drys them. Flakes are used in bread making for two distinct 
purposes : to increase the absorptive capacity of the flour as 
well as the moisture retaining power of the bread. 

Corn flakes have the power to absorb and retain often as 
much as 200 per cent of water, so that 3 pounds added to a 
barrel of flour (not more than 3 pounds per barrel is the most 
advisable quantity to use) may increase the amount of water 
necessary for making the dough by 6 pounds, whereas the 
absorption of 3 pounds of flour is only about 2 pounds. The 
best results are obtained by adding the required amount of 
corn flakes in the proportion of 3 pounds per barrel directly 
to the mixer with the flour with no other change in the for- 
mula except the increased amount of water. 

Corn flakes are used also with malt extract to effect a vig- 
orous fermentation and to cut down the quantities of sugar 
and yeast necessary. 

The theory in this method is that at 150° F. the conversion 
of the gelatinized starch of the corn flakes is effected by the 
diastase contained in the malt extract, producing maltose, 
principally. When the yeast is added at 90 to 95° there is 
begun a vigorous fermentation and it will be noted that when 
added to the mixer it shows of being vigorous. By this method, 
the yeast is strengthened and upon making up the dough, the 
added ferment causes fermentation to proceed very rapidly. 

In using this method, the quantity of sugar may be reduced 
3 pounds per barrel while the yeast should be reduced to 2 or 
2*4 pounds per barrel, making a great saving in both. The 
loaf produced has an excellent bloom, and has a very thin and 
crisp crust. Not more than 3 pounds of corn flakes per barrel 
should be used and the diastatic power of the malt extract 
should be sufficiently high so as to insure complete conversion 
of the corn flakes. 

67 



CHAPTER V. 
The Analysis of Flour.* 

VALUE OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 

The value of chemical analysis of flour and baking and mill- 
ing materials should be apparent to all enterprising and ener- 
getic millers and bakers. To the miller it affords an opportunity 
whereby he may know the quality of each grade of wheat ; he 
may know the relative merits of each stream in his mill and 
with this knowledge may blend the streams in a manner to 
conform to the needs or specifications of his customers ; he may 
find that he has been cutting off his reduction streams permit- 
ting a large quantity of flour to go to the "clear" when per- 
haps it should go to the "patent" flour bin, or he may find 
that a low grade middlings flour may be the cause of his 
patent being low in quality. On analysis of the several streams 
a slight discrepancy will show that the bolter may be working 
improperly or that the silks need changing. In having an 
accurate knowledge of his own flour, the miller can readily 
compare his competitor's products and determine their rela- 
tive qualities, as is best established by following analysis and 
opinion thereon. 

Technical Analysis of Flour. 

No. 1 

Color 98.0 

Ash 0.592. 

Absorption 61.0 

Gluten 11.45 . 

Protein (N x 6.25) 11.53 . 

Loaves per Barrel 100.0 

Volume of Loaf 97.6 

Quality of Loaf 98. . 

AVEEAGE VALUE 98.4 . 

Fermenting Period 107.3 

Quality of Gluten 91.4 . 

Moisture 10.84 . 

Sample No. 1 is a straight grade flour of poor quality. This 
opinion is based on the following facts : the color is rather dark 



No. 2 


No. 3 


No. 4 


..100.00 . 


...102.00 . 


. .. 99.50 


. . 0.558. 


.. 0.440. 


. . 0.501 


. . 61.0 . 


.. 63.0 . 


. . 61.0 


. . 10.95 . 


. . 10.74 . 


. . 10.62 


. . 11.15 . 


. . 10.98 . 


. . 10.83 


..100.0 . 


..103.4 . 


..100.0 


..100.0 . 


. . 99.0 . 


..103.2 


..100.0 . 


..102.0 . 


..101.0 


..100.0 . 


..101.6 . 


..100.7 


..100.0 . 


.. 98.9 . 


.. 94.9 


..100.0 .. 


..100.4 .. 


..107.8 


. . 11.58 .. 


.. 11.05 .. 


.. 11.37 



See also flour, Chapter II. 



and the ash contents very high, and while the gluten is high, 
it is very poor in quality and dark of color. 

From these conditions it is evident that the volume and 
quality of the loaf is poor, as indicated in the above. Odor and 
flavor of the flour however was normal. 

Sample No. 2 is a very good straight grade flour, having 
good gluten content of a creamy color. This flour produces a 
loaf of good volume and quality, and since it is furthermore 
of normal flavor and odor, it possesses all the qualities which 
would commend it as a "standard" for straight grade flours. 

Sample No. 3 is a good patent flour, having a very good 
color and low ash content. The gluten is of average amount 
and good quality and has a light creamy color. 

The yield as indicated by the absorption is very high and 
since the flour was also normal in odor and flavor it must be 
designated as of very good grade. 

Sample No. 4 represents a long patent grade, as indicated 
by the ash content. It is slightly dark in color, possesses nor- 
mal absorption and gluten, which is however, of very good 
quality. 

This flour produces a loaf of very good volume and qual- 
ity and we particularly call your attention to the fermentation 
period which is rather short. 

In view of all these facts this sample must be considered 
as representing a good article of its kind. 

To the baker, an analysis is almost indispensable because 
of the wide variance in the quality of flour. If the moisture 
content of a flour is very high, he is not only buying too 
much water but also a flour that is in danger of spoiling upon 
storage. The absorptive power should be known because it is 
an index into the yield, the more water is absorbed by the 
flour the larger will be the quantity of dough made. The ash 
content indicates the grade of the flour, and since so-called 
patents vary from 75 to 100% of the total available flour and 
since a "patent" from one mill need not correspond to but 
may be much superior or inferior to a "patent" from another 
mill, it is evident that analysis is of great importance. 
The acidity, the gluten, the expansion and stability, etc., are- 

69 



all indicative of the quality of flour and the more that is 
known concerning any sample of flour, the more likely will 
the baker be able to control uniformity of his product. 

METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 
Moisture. 

For the determination of moisture, 5 grams of flour are 
weighed off in a small aluminum dish or cup and dried at 
100° C. (the boiling point of water) until it ceases to lose 
weight which recpiires three to five hours. From the loss in 
weight, the percent of moisture is easily calculated. A mois- 
ture content higher than 13 per cent is conducive to spoilage 
and also indicates to the baker that he is buying too much 
water and to the miller that he is improperly tempering his 
wheat. 

A very rapid and accurate method of determining moisture 
in flour and especially in grains and food stuffs, etc., consists 
in heating a weighed quantity of the material to be tested 
(100 grams) in a flask with oil. The water distills over into 
a graduated cylinder and the volume is read. The apparatus 
is known as the Brown-Duvel moisture tester. It is simple in 
construction and very easy of operation and has been adopted 
as official in establishing corn grades. 

Ash. 

The ash is determined by igniting over a flame or in an 
electric muffle furnace a weighed portion (5 or 10 grams) of 
material contained in a weighed crucible until a white or grey- 
ish residue of ash remains. From the weight of the ash the 
percentage is then calculated. The ash content indicates the 
grades of the flour and gives a valuable index as to its quality. 

Color. 

The color of flour is determined by comparing the sample 
with a standard. The sample and the standard are "slicked 
up" alongside each other on a glass slide or narrow board 
in the shape of a wedge. The line joining the two is made 
sharp and distinct so that the color difference is readily seen. 
The slide with the flour is dipped into water for 10 to 15 sec- 
onds, and the surface dried by placing in an oven. The wet- 

70 



ting and subsequent drying accentuate the difference in color. 
The color of the patent standard is 100 per cent while that 
of the clear standard is 70 per cent, so that using mixtures of 
the two with known varying percentages the color of the 
sample under examination may be accurately determined. 

Absorption and Loaves Per Barrel. 

Absorption is the percentage amount of water that flour 
absorbs in making a dough of standard consistency. It is de- 
termined by adding sufficient water from a burette to 50 grams 
of flour contained in a cup, and working with a spatula or 
knife until the mass has the consistency of the standard which 
is run in parallel. Absorption value is an index of the quan- 
tity of water that may be used in doughing up. Some flours 
"tighten up" while others ferment soft and sticky, so that 
the absorption test is not an infallible one. Loaves per barrel 
is the ratio of the absorption value of the sample to the 
standard and is quite generally expressed in percents. 

Dry Gluten. 

Dry gluten is determined by weighing the dry mass ob- 
tained after separating the starch by washing in water. Twen- 
ty-five grams of flour are doughed up with water, allowed to 
stand under water for at least an hour and washed through 
three changes of water or in a fine stream of water until the 
wash water is perfectly clear and free from starch. The mass 
of gluten is washed over a fine wire gauze or bolting cloth to 
collect the small fragments of gluten which break away from 
the main portion. The mass is baked, dried, and weighed, and 
the percentage calculated. The mass of wet gluten gives to 
the experienced operator a knowledge of quality and char- 
acter of the gluten which is quite generally of more import- 
ance than the actual amount contained in the flour. 

Protein. 

The total protein is determined chemically by digesting 1 
gram of flour in 20 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid in a 
Kjeldahl flask, subsequently liberating the ammonia formed 
from the protein by means of concentrated caustic soda solu- 
tion and distilling the same into a measured quantity of stand- 
ard acid solution. 

7! 



Titrating the excess of standard acid with standard alkali 
gives the amount of nitrogen which when multiplied by 6.25 
will give the amount of protein present in the original 1 gram 
of flour. 

"While this chemical method gives accurately the actual 
amount of protein, it does not enable the operator to form 
any idea as to the quality and character of the gluten con- 
tained in the flour. 

Acidity. 

Acidity of flour is determined by titrating an aqueous ex- 
tract with standard alkali. Eighteen grams of flour are di- 
gested at 40° C. with 200 cubic centimeters of water for 10 
minutes, and allowed to stand at room temperature for an 
hour with occasional shaking. The extract is filtered and 100 
cubic centimeters of the clear filtrate titrated with tenth nor- 
mal (N'10) alkali using phenolphthalein as an indicator. 

1.0 cc. of tenth normal alkali corresponds to an acidity of 
0.10 per cent, calculated as lactic acid. A high acidity value 
indicates usually improper storage and unsoundness, although 
ash content has to be taken into consideration. Acidity and 
ash content of sound flours run in parallel, high acidity asso- 
ciated with high ash content. 

Gliadin and Gliadin Number. 

Gliadin is one of the two important proteid bodies that con- 
stitute gluten and is that adhesive part of gluten which serves 
to bind the mass of flour into dough. The ratio of gliadin to 
the total protein of the flour when expressed in percentage is 
called Gliadin number. Gliadin is soluble in 70% alcohol 
and is determined analytically by digesting 2 to 8 grams of 
flour with 200 cubic centimeters of 70 per cent alcohol, filter- 
ing, taking an aliquot sample with subsequent treatment as 
under the method for determining protein. 

Expansion or Fermentation Value. 

Fermentation value is determined by fermenting 100 grams 
of flour made into a dough with 3 grams of sugar and 5 grams 
of yeast, and under standard conditions. The dough is placed 
in a graduated glass cylinder and its volume read at 15 min- 
ute intervals until its maximum expansion or volume is 

72 



reached. The ratio of this volume to that of the standard 
fermented under the same conditions is called the expansion 
or fermentation value. The maximum expansion is the volume 
of the dough as read on the cylinder when an interval of 15 
minutes shows no increase in volume. 

Fermentation Period. 

The time required for the dough to rise to its maximum 
volume under the expansion determination is called the "fer- 
mentation period." It is generally expressed in per cent of the 
standard. 

Quality of Gluten. 

The quality of gluten is the ratio of the expansion per gram 
or per cent of gluten in the sample to that of the standard 
and expressed in per cent. The expansion per gram or per 
cent is obtained by dividing the maximum expansion by the 
percentage of gluten. 

Stability. 

The stability of flour may be defined as the ability to with- 
stand fermentation when made into dough. The stronger the 
flour the more fermentation is required and the more the flour 
will withstand. Weak flours break down under strong fermen- 
tation so the stability test is a measure of the strength of the 
flour. 

The stability test is the average of three successive risings 
using the expansion method. After the dough has come to the 
maximum volume in the expansion test, punch down well with 
a spatula or knife and allow to come to maximum. Punch a 
second time and allow to rise. The average ratio of the maxi- 
mum expansion for the three rises as compared to the standard 
is termed the stability. 

BAKING TEST. 

The baking test is the one test which of itself has real 
merit. The chemical analysis gives a valuable index as to 
quality, when more than one determination is considered. For 
instance, the ash determination indicates the grade of a flour, 
but like any other single determination it does not sharply 

73 



differentiate between good and poor flours. But the ash test, 
along with the acidity, color, expansion and gluten, etc., suf- 
ficiently characterize it. The baking test combines in a meas- 
ure a series of tests. The color, absorption, quality of the 
gluten, expansion, etc., have their influence upon the loaf so 
that a baking test quite generally substantiates the results of 
chemical analysis. In fact an analysis of a sample of flour 
should include not only the purely chemical determinations, 
but also a baking test. 

Of the several accepted methods of making comparative 
baking tests, the one outlined below is considered to be best 
because it approaches more closely the methods employed in 
the bake shop. The dough is made up and manipulated accord- 
ing to the "straight dough" methods, whereas the other 
methods provide for a ferment of yeast and sugar to stand for 
30 minutes to an hour before using to make up the dough. 
Again, the doughs are "punched" according to a time 
schedule, and in a manner which is similar to the bake-shop 
methods. 

The size of the loaf is generally a matter of convenience. 
A larger loaf baked in a standard pan is to be preferred. 
The formula is varied somewhat in quantity of flour used — 
340 grams for hard Spring and hard Winter wheat flour, and 
380 for soft Winter wheat flour, but the quantities of other 
ingredients is constant, i. e., sugar 10 grams, yeast 10 grams, 
salt 5 grams, shortening 8 grams and water in sufficient quan- 
tity to make a dough of standard consistency and determined 
from the absorption value. 

'The flour, sugar and salt are weighed out into a shallow 
stone jar, or crock, and placed into a warming cabinet at 80 to 
85° F. until same reaches this temperature. The yeast is 
smoothed in a portion of the water and the dough made up us- 
ing the remaining portion of water, the total amount corre- 
sponding to the absorption of the flour, and adding the yeast 
liquid last. The shortening is added after the batch has been 
mixed for some time, and thoroughly incorporated in the mix. 
The proper temperature of the water to be used in this test is 
determined by subtracting the sum of the temperature of the 
flour and room from 246°. The mixing is best done with a 

74 



large spatula or palette knife that has been cut off or a dulled 
ordinary "butcher's" knife or a putty knife. 

After 10 minutes the crock, containing the dough, is re- 
moved from the closet and the dough worked again with a 
spatula or knife and replaced in the closet. The first, second, 
third and fourth "cuts" are made at intervals of 90 minutes, 
45 minutes, 23 minutes and 12 minutes, respectively, following 
mixing and is done by removing the dough from the crock, 
working on the bench to remove the gas and in a manner 
similar to "rounding up." The dough in a neat round ball is 
replaced in the crock, put back in the closet to be "cut" at 
intervals as indicated. Ten minutes after the fourth working, 
the dough is moulded and panned. The interval of time be- 
tween mixing and panning is three hours so that a test loaf is a 
three-hour straight dough loaf. The loaf is placed in a steam 
closet heated to 100 to 105 °F. with live steam and when 
proofed to three times its original volume is baked at 425° to 
475°F. A one-pound loaf should be baked 30 to 35 minutes 
and other sizes accordingly. 

LABORATORY OUTFIT. 



1 Balance, Baker's scale. 

1 Analyt. Balance, cap. 100 grs. 

1 Set of weights, analyt. 100 grs. 

2 Eetor stands with 3 rings. 
1 Tripod, 6 inch. 

1 Drying oven, for gas or electric. 
1 Waterbath, 6 inch. 

1 Test tube support 

3 Sets of beakers, No. 00 to 3. 

4 Erlmeyer flasks, 250 and 500 cc. 

2 Flasks, fl. b. 250 ce. 

1 Washing bottle, 500 cc. 

3 Kjeldahl flasks, 500 cc, 

2 Funnels, 4 inch. 

2 Funnels, 2 1 / £ inch. 

4 Crucibles, pore. No. 1. 

1 Evaporating dish, pore. 3% in. 

3 Moisture cups, alum. 2 inch. 

2 Doz. test tubes, 6 x % inch. 
1 Cylinder, graduated 50 cc. 
1 Cylinder, graduated 250 cc. 
1 Pipette, vol. 5 cc. 

1 Pipette, vol. 10 cc. 
1 Pipette, vol. 23 cc. 
1 Pipette, vol. 50 cc. 
1 Burette, Mohrs, 50 cc. 1/10. 



1 Burette clamp holder. 

1 Burette pinch cock. 

6 Glass slides, 2x5 inch. 

4 Glass rods, 4 to 8 inches long. 

3 Watch glasses, 5 inch. 

1 Thermometer, 220° F. 

1 Thermometer, 400° F. 

3 Triangles, pipe cov. st, 2 inch. 

(i Wire gauze, iron, 5x5 inch. 

1 Wire gauze, brass or copper, 40 

mesh, 12 x 12 inch. 
6 Porcelain cups. 

1 Porcelain gluten bowl, pint size 
3 Jars, stoneware, */% gal. 

2 Jars, Chidlow expansion, cap. 
1,000 cc. 

1 Spatula, 4 inch. 

1 Table knife, 6 inch. 

1 Table spoon. 

1 Teaspoon. 

1 Flour slick. 

1 Triangular file. 

1 Forceps, brass. 

1 Tong, brass double bent. 

1 Test tube brush. 

1 Camel hair brush. 



75 



Dessicator, Scheibler's, with 
plate 8 inch. 

Extraction apparatus, Soxh- 
let's compl. 
Condensors, Liebigs. 
Condensor bulbs, Kjeldahl's. 
Clamps, Universal condensor. 
Clamp holders. 



2 Doz. reagent bottles, glass stop- 
per, 8 oz. 

200 Filters, white, 5 inch. 

100 Filters, white, 10 inch. 

Glass tubing, assorted sizes, 1 lb. 

Eed and blue litmus paper, 2 
books each. 

Eubber hose of different size. 



Additional Apparatus for the Baker. 



1 Microscope, double nose piece, 

magn. power 550. 
12 Slides, microscopic, 1x3 inch. 
1 Box cover glasses, % inch rd. 



1 Dropping bottle. 
1 Babcock milk and cream tester 
compl. 



Additional Apparatus for the Miller, 
l 



1 Microscope, double nose piece, 

magn. power 300. 
12 Slides, microscopic, lx 3 inch. 
1 Box cover glasses, % inch rd. 
1 Bushel weight grain tester. 



Brown-Duvel 



Moisture tester; 

complete. 
2 Gooch crucibles. 
1 Filter pump. 
1 Erlmeyer filter flask, side neck. 



Reagents, Solutions. 



Hydrochloric acid, dil. 

Sulphuric acid, dil. and n/10 sol. 

Nitric acid, dil. 

Acetic acid, cone. 

Ammonium hydroxide, dil. 

Ammonium chloride. 

Ammonium carbonate. 

Barium chloride. 

Caustic soda, cone, and n/10 sol. 

Sodium carbonate. 



washed for 



Asbestos, 

crucible. 
Calcium chloride for Dessicator 
Permanganate of Pot. cryst. 



Eeagent, 

Gooch 



Potassium ferrocyanide. 
Silver nitrate, n/10 sol. 
Methyl orange. 
Phenolphthalein. 
Alcohol, ethyl 95%. 
Sulphanilic acid. 
Alpha Naphtylamine. 
Ether, sulphuric. 
Iodine sol. 
Mercury. 

Solids. 

Sodium hydroxide, sticks. 
Sodium hydroxide, Greenbanks. 
Zinc, granular. 



BREAD AND CAKE FORMULAS. 



Introduction. 

In the formula charts for different kinds of bread, it will 
be noticed that all are based upon a half barrel unit, using 
straight dough method. It is perhaps needless to say that 
in mixing the dough it is best to add the salt and milk with 
most of the water to the mixer, at the proper temperature, and 
effecting solution by a few turns of the mixer arms. The yeast 
and sugar are added to the remaining water at 80 to 85° F. 
containing the malt extract and smoothed down and allowed 
to stand while the other ingredients are being weighed out 
and dissolved. Milk powder and malt sugar should be stirred 
in with the flour before mixing. Approximately four-fifths of 
the flour is added to the mixer and mixed several minutes be- 
fore adding the remainder of the flour and the yeast-malt 
solution. After the mixing is practically complete, add the 
shortening and complete the mixing. In making a larger or 
smaller dough, the ratio of yeast will of necessity be changed 
slightly as a larger dough requires correspondingly less yeast 
and a smaller one somewhat more. 

In using the cake formulas, it must be remembered that 
they are not intended for household or amateur use. It is pre- 
sumed that the baker understands the proper order in the 
addition of the several ingredients as also the proper manipula- 
tion of the mix. 

As an illustration of the use of the cake formulas, let us 
take Sponge No. 2 under Chart IV. In that case the procedure 
would probably be to first weigh off all the materials, sifting 
the one-half ounce of baking powder with the flour. Weigh 
out the sugar, add the whole eggs and whip until light. Add 
the butter which should be rather soft and free from salt and 
excess water and beat until light, adding the vanilla before 
finishing, and finally the flour. When a machine is used, mix 

77 



the flour on low speed. In adding the vanilla with the butter, 
the flavor of the product is not baked out as is the case when 
added during the last stage of the mixing. The flavor is due 
to substances that are quite soluble in the shortening, and 
consequently is retained more completely in the case by this 
method. The results to be obtained do not necessarily coincide 
with the amount of effort expended in whipping a mix, espe- 
cially so when made by hand, inasmuch as it requires experi- 
ence and a "knack" to incorporate the maximum amount of 
air. 

Taking another example, for instance, wine cake mixes, as 
indicated in Chart III, the method of procedure should prob- 
ably consist of creaming the lard and butter together with the 
sugar, adding the quantity of eggs slowly and in about six por- 
tions. Cream thoroughly after the addition of each portion. 
The vanilla is beat in, and the flour, with which has been 
sifted the baking powder, and all the milk, are added at one 
time, and mixed on low speed. Oftentimes, especially in rich 
mixes, the flour is mixed in by hand as this produces a lighter 
mix. 

In this connection it might not be amiss to add that a 
process is adopted which appears quite practical and consists 
in working a small quantity of the flour containing no baking 
powder into the shortening at low speed, finishing after a few 
minutes on high speed. The remainder of the flour into which 
the baking powder has been sifted, together with the milk in 
which the flavoring and the sugar has been dissolved, are added 
and mixed at high speed for a few minutes, finishing on low 
speed until the batter is smooth. This method insures a close 
and even texture to the cakes and permits of incorporating 
a larger quantity of sugar and milk or water. 

In the foregoing, we have selected as the most practical, to 
indicate first the quantity of the flour, — which may be a soft 
Winter wheat variety or a blend of rice or tapioca flour with 
the soft Winter wheat flour — as giving an index to the size of 
the mix, and not the butter and sugar which in ordinary prac- 
tice would be weighed off first. The formulas are supposed 
to suggest to the foreman and superintendent new cake mixes 
copies of which might appear individually as were chosen to 
be introduced in the bake shop. 



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87 



RECORDS FOR THE BAKESHOP. 



Introduction. 

The maintenance of an accurate record of operations, for- 
mulas, etc., in a bakery should be a source of profit to the 
management, as well as convenience to the superintendent. A 
completed record abounds in ready and valuable information, 
showing the exact output, and records of the different kinds 
of bread, together with the quantities baked of each. Changes 
in the formulas can be referred to in a moment's notice and 
their influence upon the quality of the product noted. Daily 
record is on file of the course of the dough through the sponge 
room, the doughing and fermenting room, whereby the cause 
of any differences in the quality of the loaf can be traced 
Record of all temperatures concerned, as well as the time for 
the several operations and combined with records of humidity 
and atmospheric pressure should be maintained as data on the 
variable factors that affect bread making. Through an exami- 
nation of a series of such records, one is enabled to see the dif- 
ferences that are effected by each factor. For instance, it may 
be noted that the doughs get "sloppy" when the pressure is 
low and the humidity very high. The logical and proper pro- 
cedure would be to regard the indication of the barometer and 
hygrometer before setting a sponge or dough, and to vary the 
yeast, sugar, malt, etc., accordingly. It may be that the doughs 
are not being properly timed and punched or are being set 
too warm or that the yield is too low. A little calculation 
would indicate whether the divider is accurately scaling to 
the fraction of an ounce, while a study of the dough sheet 
might indicate that the flour being used has not a profitable 
absorption and so on. 

The more opportunity one has of becoming acquainted with 
the variable factors in bread-making, the better chance there 
is of controlling the same. 



The Store Room Records are self explanatory. Entries are 
made of amounts of materials received as well as delivered to 
bake shop under respective date. The total of materials used, 
deducted from the sum of the monthly receipts plus material 
on hand on the first of the month, gives material on hand on the 
closing of the last day of the month, which figure is forwarded 
to sheet for next month as material on hand on the first of 
the month. As the kind of materials used in the bake shop 
vary considerable, except flour, sugar, shortening, etc., it was 
deemed advisable to leave open headings to be filled in with 
the respective name of ingredients as employed in the respec- 
tive bake shop. 



89 





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97 



SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DATA 



Introduction. 

The following chapters are intended to present to the baker 
and miller in a readily comprehensible form a general review 
of the various branches of science and technics co-related to 
the baking industry such as Physics, Chemistry, Microscopy 
and Pure Yeast Culture, Refrigerating and Electrical En- 
gineering, Arithmetics and Mensuration. 

Although in order to remain within the scope of this 
manual these subjects could be treated only in a somewhat 
brief manner, yet the information contained therein will prove 
of sufficient value to warrant a careful perusal and study, at 
the same time impressing upon the reader the importance and 
indeed necessity of acquiring at least a general knowledge of 
such scientific facts and data as are most essential for anyone 
whose aim it is to be a master in his vocation. 

The progressive baker, however, who from reading these 
chapters should become desirous of developing his knowledge 
even more by further elucidation and more thorough instruc- 
tion on these subjects, will by the careful study of this part 
be enabled to understand intelligently and with no difficulty, 
more elaborate and special works in these various branches to 
which he might feel inclined to refer for more detailed infor- 
mation. 



98 



CHAPTER VI. 

Physics. 

Physics is that branch of science which treats of the prop- 
erties and relations of matter and force (or energy). 

Properties of Matter and Force. 

Everything- that occupies space and possesses weight is 
called matter. A limited portion of matter is called a body. 

All matter is divisible and is made ivp of molecules. 

A molecule is the smallest conceivable part of a substance 
and it cannot be divided without destroying the identity of the 
substance. 

Three different states of aggregation are known insofar all 
substances appear either in a solid, or liquid or gaseous form. 

The state of aggregation of many substances can be 
changed by either adding or withdrawing heat, or changing 
the pressure acting upon the same. 

Force does not occupy space, nor does it possess weight; 
it is, however, the cause of motion or of any change of motion. 

Attractive forces are : 

Cohesion or the attraction which unites molecules of the 
same kind. 

Adhesion or the force which attracts molecules of different 
kind. 

Molar Attraction is a force which acts between different 
bodies. A special case of molar attraction is gravitation or the 
attraction of the earth upon all bodies. 

Weight and Specific Weight. 

The effect of the gravitation upon matter is called weight; 
the same is measured by comparison with certain standards, 
called standard weights. 

The specific weight or specific gravity (sp. gr.) of a body 
is its weight in comparison with the weight of an equal volume 
of water. 

It is obtained by dividing the weight of the respective body 
by the weight of an equal volume of water. 

The specific gravity of liquids can be determined by means 
of the picnometer or with the hydrometer. 

99 



Percentage hydrometers are used for the ready determina- 
tion of the percentage of any substance contained in a solu- 
tion ; some of the best known percentage hydrometers are sac- 
charometer and alcoholometer. 

Hydraulics. 

A liquid contained in open vessels or pipes, which are con- 
nected with each other, will have the same level in all of them. 

The hydraulic pressure exerted upon a given surface, by a 
water column is equal to the product of the surface times the 
height of the column ; it is independent from the size or shape 
of the vessel. 

The pressure of a water column 1 foot high equals 0.433 
pound upon every square inch, or it takes a water column 
closely 27% inches high to exert a pressure of 1 pound per 
square inch. 

The pressure exerted by liquids lighter or heavier than 
water is in proportion to their specific gravity. 

Air Pressure. 

The pressure of the atmosphere is sufficient to support a 
mercury column about 30 inches high, or a water column 34 
feet high. It amounts at sea-level to 14.7 pounds per square 
inch in the average, but varies with weather conditions and 
with the elevation above sea-level. 

Air pressure is measured by the barometer; for measuring 
the pressure of other gases and vapors, f. i. the vapor of 
water or steam manometers or pressure gauges are used. 

Heat and Temperature. 

Heat is a form of energy, it is molecular motion. It can 
be generated by mechanical or muscular motion, by chemical 
processes, by means of electricity, etc. 

Temperature means the state or intensity of heat, generally 
designated as cold and hot or warm. 

If bodies having different temperatures are in direct or in- 
direct contact heat will pass from the warmer body to the 
colder one, until both have acquired the same temperature. 

Addition of heat generally raises the temperature of a body 
and expands the same ; abstraction or withdrawal of heat gen- 
erally lowers the temperature and causes contraction. 

100 



Thermometers. 

Thermometers are instruments for measuring temperatures. 
The various thermometers are different either in graduation or 
in general construction. 

The different graduations in use are the Fahrenheit, the 
Celsius or Centigrade and the Reaumur scale of graduation. 

Their essential differences are as follows : On the Fahren- 
heit scale the temperature of melting ice is designated as 32°, 
that of water boiling in an open vessel at 14.7 pounds pres- 
sure as 212°. 

On the Centigrade scale these two temperatures are desig- 
nated as 0° and 100°, respectively, while on the Reaumur 
thermometers, the boiling point is indicated by 80°, the melt- 
ing point being the same as on the Centigrade scale, that is 0°.* 

The chief difference as far as construction is concerned is 
in the thermometrical medium employed, which in general is 
mercury. However, alcohol and pentane is also used 
for filling thermometer tubes, and in the so-called metallic 
thermometers no liquid but a strip made of two different 
metal serves the same purpose. 

For high temperatures, such as in baking ovens, pyrome- 
ters are used; the same are either metallic or electric pyro- 
meters, in the latter a thermo-electric current being generated 
by the heat of the oven. 

Heat Unit and Specific Heat. 

The unit used for measuring quantities of heat is called 
British thermal unit (B. T. IT.), and it represents the heat 
required to heat 1 pound of water 1° F. 

The specific heat of a substance other than water is the 
quantity of heat required to heat 1 pound of the respective 
substance 1° F. This heat differs greatly with different sub- 
stances; with most substances it is less than 1 B. T. U. 

To calculate the heat required to heat up a given quantity 
of a substance for any difference in temperature, multiply the 
weight of the substance by the difference in temperature and 
by the specific heat of the substance 



*See Thermometer Table in appendix for formula for the conver- 
sion of thermometer degrees. 



101 



Melting and Latent Heat of Melting. 

Many solid substances can be melted by the application of 
heat. This melting takes place at a constant and definite tem- 
perature, called melting point, which, however, is different for 
different substances. 

This melting temperature is at the same time the tempera- 
ture at which a liquid becomes solid (freezes or solidifies), 
when the liquid is cooled sufficiently. 

Hence 32° F. which is the melting point of ice, is also called 
freezing point of water. 

When a solid, for example ice, melts, it absorbs heat, hence 
the cooling effect of ice. This absorbed heat, however, has no 
effect upon the temperature of the ice or ice-water, and it is 
therefore called latent heat. 

The latent heat of ice is closely 144 B. T. IT. per pound. 

Boiling and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 

If a liquid is heated continuously a temperature is finally 
attained at which the liquid boils, that is at which it is trans- 
formed into vapors (in the case of water called steam). 

This boiling takes place at a definite temperature, called 
boiling point, which for water is 212° F. while it differs for 
other liquids. 

When a liquid is boiling it absorbs heat which has no 
effect upon the temperature; hence, it is called latent heat of 
vaporization, which in the case of water amounts to 966 B. 
T. U. per pound of water. 

Vapors, formed from a liquid by boiling, will, when cooled, 
condense or liquify at the same temperature at which they had 
been formed; hence, boiling and liquifying points are identical. 

Effect of Pressure on Boiling. 

If a liquid is boiling in a closed vessel (boiler), in which 
a higher or lower pressure may be maintained, the boiling tem- 
perature of the liquid will rise as the pressure increases, and 
decrease under a lower pressure (respectively vacuum). 

Hygrometry. 

Water evaporates also at temperatures lower than its boil- 
ing point, in consequence of which the atmosphere always con- 



tains more or less water vapor iu form of humidity, the amount 
of such humidity depending upon temperature and general 
weather conditions. 

If air contains all the humidity it can retain at a certain 
temperature, it is called saturated, and any cooling of such air 
will cause the water vapor to condense and become liquid. 

The degree or percentage of humidity of the air can be 
determined by means of the Hygrometer, of which several dif- 
ferent kinds are in use. 

Humidity being an item of importance in a bakery, a good 
hygrometer is of equal importance as is true of a good ther- 
mometer. 



CHAPTER VII. 
Chemistry. 

Chemical Changes. 

Chemistry is the science that treats of chemical changes, 
that is changes that take place in the constitution of all sub- 
stances and may be explained as follows : If vinegar is poured 
on a piece of chalk there is at once a change. The vinegar 
seems to boil; a gas is given off called carbonic acid or carbon- 
dioxide. The chalk is dissolved and a liquid is left, which, if 
heated, becomes a solid totally different from the chalk. 

This is what is known as a chemical change or reaction, in 
which both the chalk and the vinegar are changed. 

This differs from a physical change wherein the composi- 
tion of a substance is not changed by outside influences. 

If water is exposed to a temperature below 32° F. it becomes 
a solid, ice. It has undergone a physical change insofar ice is 
the solid form of water, as is proven if the temperature is 
raised and the ice melts. If the temperature is raised to 212° F. 
the water becomes steam, another physical change ; but steam 
has the same chemical composition as water since no chemical 
change has taken place in it. 



Elements. 

All substances are made up of what are known as elements. 
There are some seventy-five elements, for instance : gold, sil- 
ver, iron, zinc, tin, copper, sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen, nitro- 
gen, etc. 

They form the bases of all substances in one form or an- 
other, and are like the bricks with which a mason builds a 
house. Certain of these elements have a great attraction for 
certain others. Oxygen has a great attraction for iron; if a 
piece of iron is exposed to air in a short time it will be found 
to be rusted. This rust is what is known as iron oxide, and 
it is the product of the chemical union of oxygen with iron, 
and is not oxygen or iron, but a new or different substance 
composed of both. It is a powder and not hard like iron or a 
gas like oxygen. 

Some elements are called metallic, others non-metallic. Such 
elements as gold, silver, copper, potassium, sodium, etc., are 
metallic. Sulphur, carbon, phosphorus are non-metallic. 
Oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, and nitrogen are gaseous elements. 

Compounds and Mixtures. 

"When as in the illustration of the rust or iron, any two 
or more elements unite to form a new substance, this new 
substance is known as a compound.. The chalk referred to in 
a former illustration is a compound of lime and carbonic acid, 
although it appears like one substance. So we could show by 
analysis that the iron rust is a compound of iron and oxygen. 

Mixtures are very different from compounds insofar as com- 
pounds are chemical unions as shown, while mixtures are not. 
In other words, if we put sugar and sand together, we form 
a mixture, but not a compound as there is no chemical union. 
If we dissolve salt in water' we have a liquid mixture or solu- 
tion, but no compound. It is true the salt disappears and 
it would seem that a compound is formed, but if we heat this 
solution the water is evaporated and the salt is left chemically 
unchanged. 

Atoms and Molecules. 

Atoms are defined as the smallest particles into which an 
element may be divided, and consequently they cannot be 
divided any further. 



It has, however, been found in nature that atoms do not 
exist isolated or alone, but when free they unite with one an- 
other if they do not unite with atoms of some other element, 
and this union is called a molecule, and this is the smallest 
particle of a substance that will exist by itself, and possess all 
the characteristics of the respective substance. Thus a mole- 
cule of hydrogen is the union of two atoms of hydrogen; a 
molecule of common salt is the union of an atom of chlorine 
and an atom of sodium. 

Chemical Symbols and Formula. 

Each of the elements in chemistry has a name derived from 
the Latin or Greek language, and a common name by which 
it is generally known ; for instance, the chemical name for that 
substance commonly known as iron, is Ferrum, the Latin name. 
The chemical name for copper is Cuprum, also a Latin name. 
Chemists to avoid writing out the full name of an element 
each time use a symbol, which is one or more letters of the 
chemical name. Thus, Au is the symbol for "Aurum," gold, 
while the symbol for iron is Fe, the first letters of the chemical 
name ' ' Ferrum, " H is the symbol for Hydrogen, for Oxygen, 
C for Carbon, etc. 

To express in a clear and distinct way a chemical fact the 
chemist uses what is called a formula. We know, for example, 
by experiment that a molecule of water is composed of 2 atoms 
of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen chemically combined, and 
to express this fact the chemist uses the formula "H 2 0". In 
the same way the chemist uses for sulphuric acid the formula 
"H,S0 4 ". Each distinct substance has a chemical formula. 

Chemical Affinity or Attraction. 

"We are all familiar with the fact that iron has an attraction 
for a magnet ; in like manner all substances have an affinity for 
some other substance to a greater or lesser degree. 

When we put the vinegar on the chalk we found an effer- 
vescence resulting. This was because we had in the chalk an 
attraction of lime with carbonic acid, but this affinity is weak, 
and when Ave added the vinegar, the affinity of the lime for 
the vinegar was stronger than for the carbonic acid, and it 
went to the vinegar, and the carbonic acid was set free, and 
a new compound was formed. 



Valence or Atomicity. 

The atom of each element has a certain amount of power 
to unite with other atoms to form molecules, and this is known 
as the valence of an element. For instance, an atom of oxygen 
has the power to unite with two atoms of hydrogen, form- 
ing H 2 0, hence it is called bivalent. 

It requires then two atoms of a univalent element (like 
Hydrogen H) to unite with one atom of a bivalent element 
(like Oxygen 0) to form a molecule of the compound. Nitro- 
gen is a trivalent atom and that requires three atoms of hydro- 
gen to form a molecule. In the case of oxygen one atom may 
unite with one atom of sodium "Na," leaving free one valence 
of oxygen, which may unite with one atom of hydrogen making 
the compound "NaOH" showing that the two values of oxygen 
have been satisfied by one atom of sodium and one atom of 
hydrogen. 

Atomic Weights. 

All substances, even air, have weight and as all elements 
may be divided into their smallest particles or atoms, these 
atoms must have weight, and this is known as the atomic 
weight. 

All substances have different relative weights; some are 
called heavy, others light. Hydrogen which is the lightest 
element known, is taken as the standard of comparison, and 
the atomic weight of an element is the relative weight of its 
atoms as compared with the weight of an atom of hydrogen. 
Thus the atomic weight of iron is 56, of copper 63, hydrogen 
1, oxygen 16, carbon 12, sulphur 32, etc. 

Inorganic Chemistry. 

That part of chemistry treating on minerals or anything 
made from or related to minerals is generally called inorganic 
chemistry in distinction to organic chemistry which treats sub- 
stances derived from or related to either the animal or vege- 
table organism. 

Metals and Metalloids. 

Those elementary bodies that possess metallic qualities, 
such as metallic lustre, conductivity for heat and electricity 
are called metals. They are malleable, may be hammered out ; 



are ductile, may be drawn out. They are iron, gold, silver, 
lead, tin, copper, etc. They unite with oxygen, forming oxides, 
and with both oxygen and hydrogen, forming hydroxides, or 
bases. 

Metalloids are unlike metals, they do not possess metallic 
lustre, they are not good conductors of heat or electricity; 
some of them are gases. They will unite with hydrogen, or 
oxygen and hydrogen, to form acids. Non-metals are hydro- 
gen, chlorine, iodine, carbon, sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, 
oxygen, silica. Some compounds of non-metallic elements or 
metalloids, Avith hydrogen, or with oxygen and hydrogen, are 
Hydrochloric acid "HC1", Sulphuric acid "H 2 S0 4 ", Nitric 
acid "HN0 3 ". 

Alkalis, Acids; Salts. 

Alkalis is the term applied to those oxides or hydroxides 
which are soluble in water, such as caustic soda and caustic 
potash. They have a soapy taste, and have a caustic effect 
upon organic substances such as fats and oils, with which 
they form soaps. They will dissolve or soften paint, varnish, 
cellulose, albumen and the like. The presence of free alkali 
may be known by turning red litmus paper blue. 

Acids, as a rule, have a sour taste, like vinegar or lemon 
juice. If they come in contact with metals or alkalis they 
will dissolve them and form new compounds, called salts. 

Acids contain hydrogen, "H", in combination that can 
be exchanged or replaced by a metal. The test for free acid 
is the turning of blue litmus paper red. 

When an acid and an alkali are brought together in the 
proper proportions, the properties of each are destroyed and 
they are said to neutralize each other. This may be known 
when litmus paper will turn neither red or blue, and the sour 
and soapy taste are gone. To illustrate by a formula this 
reaction which is called neutralization, we take caustic soda 
"NaOH", an alkali, and add to it hydrochloric acid "HCT". 
Then we find the metal of the alkali, sodium, to change place 
with the hydrogen of the acid and to combine with the chlorine 
forming sodium chloride, "NaCl" Common salt, while the 
hydrogen of the acid unites with the oxygen and hydrogen of 
the alkali, forming water, H 2 0. 

107 



A salt is the union or combination of an acid and a base, 
that is an alkali or a metal. Salts take the name of the acid 
entering into the compound, so that salts formed from sul- 
phuric acid H 2 S0 4 are called "Sulphates," those from hydro- 
chloric acid "HC1" chlorides, etc. If in an acid that has 
more than one atom of hydrogen in a molecule, only part of 
the hydrogen is replaced by a metal, the resulting salt is 
known as an acid salt. 

Air, Oxidation and Combustion. 

Air is the atmosphere surrounding the earth and is a mix- 
ture of a variety of gases, but chiefly one-fifth of oxygen, 
and four-fifths nitrogen, with small quantities of water vapor, 
ammonia, carbonic acid, and other gases. Air is absolutely 
necessary to all life as it contains oxygen. 

Oxygen has the quality of combining with many other 
elements and the change they undergo hereby is called oxida- 
tion. If in the case of wood and fuels the oxidation takes 
place rapidly in the form of fire, it is called combustion. 
When a match is lighted the heat of the burning head of 
the match is sufficient to heat the wood enough to set free 
the hydrogen in the wood, which unites with oxygen to form 
water, and make the carbon red hot. This latter unites with 
oxygen and forms carbonic acid. 

Water.* 

One of the most widely distributed natural substances is 
water. Chemically pure water is a compound of hydrogen and 
oxygen, having the formula "H 2 0". It will dissolve most sub- 
stances and is obtained pure by boiling and condensing the 
vapor, known as distillation. This is exhibited in nature by 
rain water; but even this is not absolutely pure as it contains 
ammonia and other gases. 

Water that has dissolved in it Calcium (lime) or Magne- 
sium salts, is termed a hard water, otherwise it is soft. 

Water that contains carbonate of soda or potash is termed 
alkaline. Hard water is rendered soft by adding soda or 
ammonia. Water for baking should be to a certain extent 
possessed of permanent hardness, to assist in the develop- 



*See Water, Chapter II. 

108 



ment of lactic acid, but if too hard, it will retard fermenta- 
tion. Water that contains too much sodium chloride (salt) 
will likewise arrest fermentation. Alkaline water is not adapt- 
able for baking, as it softens and breaks up the gluten. 

Organic Chemistry. 

The branch of chemistry that treats of chemical com- 
pounds present in plants and animals is called organic chem- 
istry. These compounds which all contain carbon in some 
form, can be gases or liquids or solids, as benzine, oil, fats, 
starch, sugar, protein and the like. 

Hydrocarbons. 

These .substances are compounds of carbon and hy- 
drogen, the simplest (CH 4 ), is a colorless gas, called 
Methane or marsh gas. In this one or more atoms of hydro- 
gen may be replaced by other elements or groups of atoms 
forming a large number of different compounds. The lower 
members of this series are gases, but as the number of carbon 
atoms increases, they become liquids or solids. 

Alcohols. 

Common alcohol is a volatile colorless liquid, derived by fer- 
mentation from sugar and is obtained by distillation. It has the 
formula C 2 H 5 (OH) and is known as ethyl- or grain-alcohol 
or spirit of wine and is present in wine, beer, brandy and 
whiskey in quantities from 2% to 70%. Good technical alco- 
hol contains 94 to 95% of alcohol. 

One hundred parts of sugar will give 51 parts of alcohol 
and 49 parts of carbonic acid, and therefore alcohol is also 
formed in the fermentation of dough. It is inflammable and 
has a pleasant taste, but little odor. 

Ethyl-alcohol is lighter than water, it has a specific gravity 
of 0.79, and boils at 78° C. or 173° F. If exposed under cer- 
tain circumtances to air, the oxygen of the air converts it into 
acetic acid or vinegar as in sour beer, wine, cider, and to a 
certain extent in bread baking in the oven. 

From methane (CTI 4 ) by substituting OH for one atom of 
hydrogen we have Methyl- or wood alcohol CH 3 (OH). This 
is a poison and is used to dissolve resins in the manufacture 
of varnishes. 



Fusel-alcohol or Amyl-alcohol C 5 H n (OH) sometimes 
called Fusel oil is formed in small quantities in fermentation. 

Glycerine, C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 , is a triple alcohol; it is a thick liquid 
with a sweet taste. With the fatty acids it forms the animal 
and vegetable fats and oils. 

Organic Acids. 

When an alcohol is oxydized, it becomes an acid. Ethyl 
alcohol by oxidation becomes acetic acid, CH 3 COOH. Vine- 
gar contains from 5 to 6% of acetic acid, and a little is 
formed in the baking of bread in the oven from the alcohol 
formed in the fermentation of the dough and gives the pecu- 
liar odor in the baking. 

Butyric acid, C 3 H 7 COOH, forms in butter when it becomes 
rancid. 

Palmitic acid, C 15 H 31 COOH, and stearic acid, € 17 H 35 OOOH, 
are found in vegetable and animal fats and oils combined with 
glycerine. Boiled with soda or potash, the fats and oils form 
soaps. 

Lactic acid, C 3 H 6 3 , is present in small quantities in grain, 
hence in flour, also in milk. It increases during fermentation 
by lactic acid bacteria, which decompose carbohydrates 
and form this acid. It is present in bread from 0.12 to 0.20%, 
in beer about 0.1%. It occurs in larger quantities in rye 
bread, weiss beer, ale, sour milk and sour-kraut. It has a 
favorable effect on certain enzymes, such as peptase, hence its 
presence in dough is desirable. It assists in the keeping 
qualities of bread, hence rye bread keeps better than wheat 
bread. 

Tartaric acid, C 4 H 6 6 , is found in the juice of grapes and 
fruit and is deposited during fermentation in the form of a 
salt called potassium tartrate or cream of tartar. This salt 
or the tartaric acid itself is used in baking powders. 

Esters. 

Compounds formed by the combination of an alcohol and an 
acid with the elimination of water are called Esters. They 
may also be considered as derived from an alcohol in which 
the hydroxylic hydrogen has been replaced by an acid radical. 

Esters may be prepared by heating for some hours on a 
water-bath a mixture of an acid and an alcohol with small 



quantities of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. They have gen- 
erally an aromatic odor, are neutral in reaction, and insoluble 
in water, but dissolve in alcohol and ether and are used as 
fruit-essences. 

Fats and Oils. 

Belonging to the group of esters is a number of substances, 
comprising the various fats and oils of animal or vegetable 
origin. 

All such fats and oils are glyceryl-esters, composed of the 
triple-alcohol glycerine with the higher organic acids, such as 
lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic acid, etc. 

Carbohydrates. 

Organic compounds in which carbon is united with water in 
certain proportions are called carbohydrates; they are such as 
the sugars C 12 H 22 O n , dextrine C 12 H 20 O 10 , starch, cellulose, etc. 
They differ from hydrocarbons which contain no oxygen. 

Cellulose (C 6 H 10 5 )n is found in the wall of the barley 
grain, wheat, etc., in cotton fiber, filter paper and filtermass. 

Starch (C 6 H 10 O 5 )m is a granular organic substance found 
in wheat, rye, barley, corn, rice, potatoes and other plants. 
It is enclosed in a cell wall, and is not soluble in water. 

If the cell wall is broken by boiling it forms a viscid 
substance or paste. This is called gelatinizing- of starch and 
takes place at 165° to 185° F. Gelatinized starch gives with 
iodine solution a bluish-black color. In baking some of the 
moist starch will gelatinize. 

The action of certain enzymes as ptyalin in saliva, and 
amylopsin in pancreatic juice converts it into maltose and 
dextrine. In brewing starch is converted into maltose by the 
diastase of malt. 

Starch heated dry to about 300° F. is converted into dex- 
trine ; this is found in the crust of bread exposed to the high 
heat of the oven. AYhen boiled with a little acid starch is 
transformed into a sugar called dextrose. 

Sugars.* 

Saccharose or sucrose, C^H^On , is a sweet substance 
found in sugarcane, beets and the sap of the maple and birch 



*See Chapter II. 



trees, as also other plants. It crystallizes when the sap or 
juice is evaporated, but if heated to about 365° F. it loses its 
crystalline form and turns into caramel. It is the sweetest of 
all sugars, freely soluble in water, but it is not fermentable. 
If boiled with acids, however, or acted upon by invertase, 
an enzyme of the yeast, it will become fermentable. Confec- 
tioners' sugar is powdered cane sugar. 

Maltose or malt sugar is the product of the mashing of 
malt. It is formed from the starch of malt by the action of 
diastase. Malt-extract contains about 60 to 65% of maltose 
with 20% of moisture and other substances. 

Lactose or milk-sugar is present in milk from 2 to 5%, 
it does not ferment directly. 

Dextrose, C 6 H I2 6 , is contained in grapes and other fruits ; 
it is also known as grape sugar. It is less sweet than cane 
sugar and readily fermentable. 

Dextrine, C 12 H 20 O 10 , is an amorphous compound found in 
the sap of plants and is produced by the action of heat or 
mineral acids on starch; it is soluble in water, practically 
tasteless and not fermentable. 

Proteins. 

Complex organic compounds containing carbon, hydro- 
gen, oxygen and in addition nitrogen and sulphur, are found 
in all animal and vegetable bodies. The best known type of 
these substances is the white of the egg, or albumen. Similar 
substances are found in seeds and grains and are called pro- 
teins or albuminoids. 

They differ from starch, sugar and cellulose as they may 
be decomposed by proteolytic enzymes, by putrefactive bac- 
teria, acids and alkali. They are divided into proteins insolu- 
ble in water and proteins soluble in water, and may be still 
further classified as to their solubility or insolubility in salt 
solution, or alcohol or whether they will coagulate or not. 

The protein glutenin is found in wheat flour, together 
with gliadin, with which it forms the "gluten" of the flour. 
The insoluble vegetable proteins are globulins, prolamins and 
glutelins. Some soluble vegetable proteins are coagulable, as 
albumin and leucosin of wheat, which will coagulate if a 

112 



solution is heated to 212° F. or treated with acids. Other 
proteins that do not coagulate are proteoses, peptones, amides 
and amino-acids. Peptones are the result of the action upon 
the higher proteins of certain enzymes, as pepsin in the gas- 
tric juice, and peptase in malt. Peptones and amides are 
the chief elements of nutrition of any organism including 
yeast. 

Enzymes. 

In the animal and vegetable organisms are found a number 
of unorganized ferments which are called enzymes; they split 
up or destroy higher organic compounds, and decompose them 
into simpler ones, while they are themselves unchanged. 

They are designated as hydrolytic, diastatic, proteolytic, 
etc., and they decompose or break up carbohydrates, pro- 
teins, fats, and other complex organic compounds. 

Cytase which occurs in barley and malt, dissolves the 
cellulose of the starch cells. 

Diastase in malt converts starch into maltose and dex- 
trine, while peptase, also contained in malt, breaks up the 
higher proteins, an effect which is also characteristic for 
pepsin contained in the gastric juice of animals. 

Enzymes splitting sugars are the invertase, the maltase 
and the zymase to be found in yeast, of which the first inverts 
cane sugar into invert sugar, that is a mixture of dextrose 
and levulose, while the second changes malt-sugar to dex- 
trose. The last one, zymase, ferments dextrose and levulose 
and forms thereby alcohol and carbonic acid. 



113 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Microscopy, Micro-Organisms, and PureYeast Culture. 

USE OF THE MICROSCOPE. 

Construction of the Microscope.* 

The microscope may be considered as a magnifying glass 
composed of one or more lenses, the former is known as 
a simple and the latter as a compound miscroscope, the chief 
parts of which are the ocular and the objectives. 

Important parts of a compound microscope ; 

Ocular Axes 

Objective iStage 

Draw Tube Stagepin 

Tube Mirror 

Pillar Mirror pin 

Coarse adjustment screw INose piece 

Fine adjustment screw Pillar 

Arm Foot or Base 

The principle upon which the microscope is operated, con- 
sists in directing a ray of light by the use of the mirror, below 
the stage, through the object to be examined, and subsequently 
through the objective and ocular to the eye. The substance 
to be examined known as the object should be in a sufficiently 
fine state to allow for the transmission of light. For all 
microscopical purposes north light or light reflected from a 
white cloud or white wall is most desirable. 

The Examination of Cereals. 

Chief among the cereals employed in the mill or bakery, 
we must consider wheat, and what applies to wheat, in a gen- 
eral way also applies to rye. For further consideration of the 
structure of a wheat kernel we refer to Plates II and III as 
also to Chapter I. 

Accordingly the following parts can be distinguished : 
Epidermis, with the wheat hair, 
Epicarp on body, 

* See Plate I. 



Cross-cells, 

Tube cells, 

Outer layer of spermoderm, 

Inner layer of spermoderm, 

Aleurone cells, 

Endosperm or Starch cells. 

Identification of Starches. 

Starches, either before cooking or disintegration, are iden- 
tified and their origin determined by the use of the micro- 
scope. A solution of iodine in water is the chemical means 
of detecting starch, and this is employed when the starch has 
been disintegrated and its mere presence is desired to be 
indicated. 

Chief among the starches are wheat, rye, icorn, rice, potato, 
bean and peas-starch. 

There are an endless number of other starches; however, 
those mentioned are the most important and suffice fully for 
illustration. 

All these starches are readily distinguishable from one an- 
other by the shape, size, and surface configuration of their un- 
divided cells, and sometime by their variation in size in the 
same starch as is indicated by the microscopical illustrations 
on Plate IV. 

At times, in the examination of starches, the polariscope is 
used on account of the refraction of the light, produced by the 
starches; this method is resorted to only where a question of 
doubt arises. 

MICRO-ORGANISMS. 
The Cell. 

In considering substances microscopically, the first subject 
that enters into question is the cell, which may be described 
as consisting of a mass of protoplasma, surrounded by a cell 
wall and containing a nucleus. The latter is the life of the 
cell, and therefore when destroyed, the cell is no longer able 
to exist. 

Protoplasm is a complex albuminous substance, resembling 
somewhat in complexity egg albumen, and furnishes to the 
cell the nourishment, as also the energy for reproduction. 



The cell wall is composed of a cellulose membrane, through 
which it receives its nourishment and performs the further 
function of keeping the cell contents in tact. A single cell is 
able to carry on all the functions of life, such as : respiration, 
assimilation and reproduction, the latter usually taking place 
in one of several ways, either direct, known as fission, or indi- 
rect by sporulation or budding. 

Infection. 

Contamination of any substance by a foreign organism 
is called infection. For example, the presence of any 
bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria, in pure culture yeast 
(from a pure yeast apparatus) would be considered as an 
infection, whereas the presence of the same bacteria in milk, 
is considered as normal. 

Fermentation. 

The decomposition of any organic substance by the action 
of ferments, such as yeast, bacteria, mould, and enzymes is 
called fermentation. Enzymes belong to the class known as 
unorganized ferments, and may be illustrated by such examples 
as invertase and peptase. 

The fermentation which takes place in bread, and is brought 
about by the action of yeast of the cultured variety on sugar 
contained in the dough is known as alcoholic fermentation, 
whereas vinous fermentation is brought about by the action 
of wild yeast, and acid fermentation by the action of bacteria, 
as is exemplified in vinegar. 

Putrefaction. 

"When fermentation is accompanied by the production of 
offensive gases, which in most cases consist of hydrogen sul- 
phide (H 2 S), we speak of it as a putrefaction, and in all cases 
with isolated exceptions, is brought about by bacteria. 

In this connection reference should be made of viscous fer- 
mentation as a form of putrefaction not uncommon in the bake- 
shop in the form of ropiness. 

Moulds (Hyphomycetes). 
Moulds, like bacteria and yeast, are plants belonging to the 
lowest form of plant-life, being devoid of chlorophyll (green 



coloring substance) and consequently grow best in dark damp 
places. They consist of a mass of interlacing fibres" known as 
mycellium, upon which are superimposed large interlacing 
threads, known as Hyphae, from which are produced the fruit 
heads and spores of the various forms of moulds. The moulds 
most commonly found in and about the mill or bakery, are the 
following: Mucor, Pencillum, Aspergillus and Oidium. 

These moulds are separate and distinct from those which 
affect the grain on the field, such as rust mould. All of these 
moulds can best be explained by referring to the illustra- 
tions on Plate V. The moulds are reproduced by spores, which 
are produced in large numbers and distributed by the air on 
other objects; they have the property of reproducing plants 
identical with those from which they originated. 

Yeast (Blastomycetes).* 

Yeast, which as already stated, belongs to the lowest form 
of plant-life, is unicellular and reproduces itself either by 
indirect fission (budding) or else sporulation (spores). 

The former is the manner in which reproduction is effected 
when the yeast is innoculated into a properly constructed 
medium which is sufficiently defusible to allow for proper as- 
similation and sufficient oxygen to admit of proper oxidation. 
"When, however, the yeast propagates under adverse condi- 
tion, it does so by the development of spores and not buds. 
These spores are formed by a sort of an agglutination of the 
protoplasm into three or four spherical objects within the 
cell wall, which will withstand many conditions, which would 
otherwise destroy the yeast. Such yeast spores when again 
placed under normal conditions will reproduce yeast cells such 
as those from which they were derived. 

There are many forms of yeast cells, varying considerable 
in size and shape, from five to ten microns in diameter (micron 
is the measurement used in microscopical work, and is indi- 
cated by and represents one thousandth part of a millimeter). 

To admit of a more convenient study, yeast is divided into 
two classes, the pure culture yeasts, such as is and should be 
used in the bakery, described technically as Saccharomycetes 



* Yeast as baking material, see Chapter II. 

117 



Cerevisiae, and the wild yeasts which should he foreign to the 
bakery, with the exception of such bakeshops wherein sour 
doughs and barms are employed, in which case the baker if not 
pursuing modern practices employs not only a variety of wild 
yeast but also a large number of bacteria. 

Bacteria (Schizomycetes). 

Like yeast and mould so bacteria belong also to the lowest 
form of plant-life and grow practically in any substances 
which contain organic matter, in a sufficiently diffusible state, 
and are not antiseptic in action. They are universally found 
in the air, the amount depending upon the cleanliness of the 
location. 

These organisms occur generally in two shapes known as 
bacilli (rod shaped) and cocci (dot shaped). They may be 
single or in chains, and the cocci also at times occur in masses. 
They range in size from one micron in width and length 
as in the cocci to one micron wide and from one and one-half 
micron to ten microns in length as in the bacilli. Some of 
these bacteria are motile, some are spore-bearing, which points 
are all used in the recognition of the organisms. The bacteria 
generally found in the bakery grow best in alkaline media, 
therefore differing from the yeast, which grow best in an acid 
medium. 

Some of these organisms, as is true with the yeast, are 
beneficial, while most of them are detrimental to the industry. 

Resume. 

In considering the foregoing collective treatment as it were 
of the moulds, yeast and bacteria the fact must not be over- 
looked that in order to remain within the very limited confine 
of the scope of this work, the same is of necessity very brief, 
therefore the reader is referred to works which treat exclu- 
sively on this subject for more detailed information. 

However, the illustrations on Plates V, VI and VII show ex- 
actly what is meant in the descriptive matter on moulds, yeast 
and bacteria. These organisms can all be grown for observa- 
tion purposes on artificial culture media, prepared from the 
desired food substances and combined with some gelatinizing 
substance, such as gelatine or agar-agar. 

118 



Microscopical Examination of Yeast. 

In a general way the examination of microscopical objects 
is pursued in approximately the same manner, and consider- 
ing the fact that the yeast is the most important organism con- 
cerning the baker we submit the following outline to be 
adopted in such examinations: 

1. Appearance of individual cells 

(a) As to the consistency of the Protoplasm, whether 
Granular, Homogenous (liquid) or Vacuoled 

(b) As to the appearance of the cell walls : thick, thin, 
or irregular. 

2. Shape of cells (a) oval, (b) round or (c) irregular. 

3. Size of cells from 5 to 9 microns; (a) large, (b) med- 

ium, (c) small. 

4. Per cent of dead cells 

5. Per cent of weakened cells 

6. Foreign substances 

7. Per cent of Bacteria 

(a) As to shape 

1. Rod or bacilli 

2. Dot or cocci 

(b) As to Occurrence 

1. In chains 

2. In masses 

3. In pairs 

4. In packages 

8. Wild yeast of which the micoderma is probably the 
most common. 

9. Inorganic substances, Calcium Oxalate. 

10. General opinion based on the above results. 

PURE YEAST CULTURE. 

Pure yeast culture is the selection of a single cell, which is 
propagated in sterilized culture media made for that purpose. 
The cell and subsequent growth is thoroughly examined as to 
its adaptability for the particular needs, consequently the same 
is selected entirely upon its character to which end the follow- 
ing tests are made : 

119 



1. Whether it is a true or wild yeast. 

2. Fermentation test is made, by which test we arrive at 
the following information : 

(a) The energy of fermentation 

(b) The reproductive power 

(c) The amount of alcohol produced 

(d) The amount of carbonic acid produced 

(e) The attenuating properties 

(f) The flavor produced in the finished product. 

3. Finally determine whether the same is free from any 
bacterial infection. 

After all the above tests are made and the yeast is found 
to be possessed of those characteristics that are deemed desir- 
able for the intended purposes, large cultures are made of the 
same, in pure yeast apparatuses, which are especially con- 
structed for this purpose. The objects of pure culture yeast 
are the absence of infection from bacteria, or wild yeast, and 
to maintain a uniform flavor of the product, as also assuring 
an exact and definite quantity of yeast required to ferment 
a known quantity of dough. 

Culture Media. 

Any substance of organic nature, which is employed for 
the purpose of growing or propagating all micro-organisms 
is known as culture medium. For the growth of yeast, a solu- 
tion called wort is employed which is prepared by digesting 
ground malt in water at suitable temperatures. The liquid 
or wort drained from this) digestion or mash is clarified 
and sterilized in properly constructed vessels. If it is desired 
to grow the yeast on a solid medium, a certain percentage of 
agar agar or gelatine is added sufficiently to maintain in a solid 
condition at ordinary room temperature. 

For the development of bacteria for the purpose of identi- 
fication, the same culture medias may be employed. 

Method of Pure Culture. 

A desirable yeast is selected and sufficiently diluted with 
sterile water, so as to have approximately one yeast cell per 
microscope-field under low power. When this dilution has 
been attained, close watch having been kept on the manner of 

120 






dilution and the amounts required, sterilized wort gelatine is 
substituted for the sterile water, and in a proportion so that 
the same dilution in liquified wort gelatine is maintained as is 
true with sterilized water. 

This is then transferred in an aseptic manner, to sterilized 
moist chambers,* which are prepared by sealing a ring of glass 
to the surface of a slide and placing on top of that a cover 
glass which has a hanging drop of the liquified wort gelatine, 
containing the yeast cells. The slide so prepared is placed on a 
level surface until the liquified wort gelatine solidifies, when it 
is then brought under the low power of the microscope, and 
examined. 

When a suitable cell is found, it is brought to the center of 
the field, and isolated from all other yeast cells in that field, 
when it is marked with a marking apparatus, especially de- 
signed for that purpose. 

After this is completed and several other cells have been 
marked in the same manner on the same cover glass, it is placed 
in an incubator, and allowed to grow for 72 hours, and ex- 
amined from time to time to see that the cells are properly 
growing. 

When they are sufficiently grown, so that the cultures can 
be seen with the naked eye, they are transferred into a flask 
containing sterilized wort, and allowed to grow until the wort 
is fermented. From there they are transferred to a large 
pasteur-flask, of 250 cubic centimeter capacity, and from this 
flask tests as to purity are made, and if the same is found to be 
a desirable yeast it is transferred to the pure yeast apparatus. 

Pure Yeast Apparatus.** 

A pure yeast apparatus is composed of two or more tanks 
especially adapted for this purpose and in a general way might 
be described as follows : 

Each tank which is of a size in proportion to the amount 
of yeast desired, has arrangements on it so that the 
yeast can be transferred without contaminating it with in- 
fected air, and to allow the same to ferment freely without 



* See Plate VIII. 
** For illustration of pure yeast apparatus see Plate IX. 

121 



keeping it under pressure and so that sufficient yeast can be 
retained for subsequent fermentation, without the renewal of 
the cultures. All air used for aeration and pressure is filtered 
through a sterilized cotton filter. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Refrigeration. 

In accordance with the scope of this book, in the following 
chapter only the most essential points on refrigeration are 
considered, although this subject is indeed a very important 
one for the baker as well as for the miller.* 

Mechanical Refrigeration. 

Mechanical refrigeration is the art of either establishing or 
maintaining by mechanical means, a temperature lower than 
the prevailing atmospheric temperature. 

Methods of Producing Refrigeration. 

While refrigeration can be obtained by the use of cooling 
water circulated through pipes or by the use of ice, which, 
when melting, absorbs heat whereby the temperature of the 
refrigerator is lowered, the most common and most efficient 
method employed at the present time and whereby in fact very 
large amounts of refrigeration can be obtained conveniently, 
is by the evaporation of liquids possessing a low boiling point, 
chiefly liquified gases. 

Refrigerating Liquids. 

The most commonly used refrigerating media are liquid or 
anhydrous ammonia, liquid carbonic acid and liquid sulphur- 
dioxyd which are all sold by the manufacturer in heavy iron 
or steel cylinders or drums, containing the liquid under a 
rather high pressure. 

Of these three refrigerating medias, ammonia is the one 
mostly employed. 



*For detailed information reference should be made to the "Com- 
pend of Mechanical Eef rigeration, " by Dr. J. E. Siebel, Director of the 
Siebel Institute of Technology. 



122 



Refrigeration Obtainable. 

The amount of refrigeration obtainable by the evaporation 
of one pound of liquid ammonia is approximately equal to the 
withdrawal of 475 B. T. XL, the same varying somewhat with 
different conditions. 

Hence, in order to obtain one ton of refrigeration, that is 
the same amount of refrigeration which would be produced by 
melting a ton of ice and which is equal to the withdrawal of 
288,000 B. T. U. about 600 pounds of liquid ammonia must 
circulate and evaporate in the refrigerator coils. 

Refrigerating Systems. 

Referring here only to the refrigeration by means of am- 
monia, two different systems are widely in use, the compression 
and the absorption system. The same do, however, practically 
not differ in the method of producing the refrigeration, or, in 
other words, in the refrigerating part of the system, but rather 
in the method of regaining and re-condensing the ammonia 
vapors produced in the refrigerator. 

Essential Parts of Refrigerating Systems. 

An ammonia compression system consists essentially of the 
following parts : A vessel containing the liquid ammonia, the 
so-called liquid receiver ; the refrigerator part connected to the 
liquid receiver by means of the expansion or reduction valve. 
This refrigerator consists of a number of iron pipes or coils 
located in the room to be refrigerated. 

A third essential part in the compressor, frequently but 
wrongly called ice-machine and finally the condensor, which 
is again a series of pipes cooled either by the atmosphere or 
more generally by cooling water. 

In an absorption system, liquid receiver, refrigerator and 
condensor are practically the same as in a compression sys- 
tem, in place of the compressor, however, there is the absorber, 
exchanger and generator. 

Quantity of Refrigeration Required. 

The quantity of refrigeration required is naturally depend- 
ent upon a number of conditions which are variable in the dif- 
ferent cases. 

123 



In refrigerating rooms the factors determining the quantity 
of refrigeration required are the dimensions of the room, the 
heat-leakage through the walls which depends upon their con- 
struction, the temperature to be established or maintained in 
the room, the maximal outside temperature as also the amount 
of heat introduced into the room by the materials handled, 
the operation of machines, burning lights and soforth. 

Not considering these last items, that is the heat due to 
materials, machines, lights and soforth, the refrigeration re- 
quired will be arrived at very closely by the following cal- 
culation. 

Let "A" indicate the total area of the walls, including 
windows and doors, ceiling and floor of the room calculated 
from its dimensions, 

"c" the factor of heat leakage per square foot, which is 
usually given for 1° F. difference in temperature for 24 
hours, and which varies with the construction of the building 
or room from 2.5 for well insulated walls to about 8 for com- 
mon brick walls, 

"t" the temperature to be maintained in the room, 

"T" the maximal outside temperature and 

"R" the amount of refrigeration in tons required per day 
then RnAXicX (T — t) -f- 288,000. 

Piping Required. 

The pipes employed in refrigerating systems are usually 
iron pipes 1 to 2 inches diameter. They are generally fastened 
to the ceiling or the upper parts of the walls, in order to 
insure good circulation of the cooled air. 

Like the quantity of refrigeration required, so the total pip- 
ing necessary for distributing this refrigeration is not a definite 
one, but varies with conditions. 

Determining in this regard are aside of the quantity of 
refrigeration to. be distributed, the temperature of the rooms 
to be cooled, the method of operating the machine and others. 

However, in general it can be assumed, that for the dis- 
tribution of one ton of refrigeration from 100 to 125 feet of 
1*4 inch pipes are required in rooms to be kept at a tempera- 
ture not lower than 50° F., and from 150 to 180 feet if this tem- 
perature is around 32° F. 

124 



CHAPTER X. 

Electricity. 

Magnetism. 

Magnetism is an invisible force which occurs in different 
ways and has what is known as a North and South Pole. It 
was known to the ancient Greeks who observed that a lode- 
stone or natural magnet would attract and hold small pieces 
of iron. 

If a piece of hardened steel is once magnetized, it will 
retain considerable of this magnetism indefinitely, and is there- 
fore considered as a permanent magnet. A magnet many 
times stronger than a permanent magnet is formed if an 
electric current is sent through a wire wound on a piece of 
iron. This is then known as an electro-magnet. 

Magnetic force can be represented by lines of magnetism 
going through the magnet. These magnetic lines tend to 
shorten as stretched rubber would ; but they also exert a lateral 
crowding effect on one another, tending to push one another 
sideways. This is the explanation why like poles repel and 
unlike poles attract each other. Soft iron is the best magnetic 
conductor known. 

Electric Pressure or Voltage. 

Electricity generated or accummulated in a body exerts a 
certain pressure or tension, called voltage. 

The most common ways of producing voltage are : 

1. By separation, as in belts running over pulleys or when 
rubbing a cat's back. 

2. By a thermo couple, that is a joint made from two dis- 
similar metals, and heating this joint. This method is largely 
used for determining temperatures. 

3. By chemical process as in a battery in which zinc and 
acid are used as the active materials. 

4. By cutting magnetic lines with a conductor. Extensive 
use of this method is made in the modern electric generator 
which is essentially a number of wires cutting magnetic lines. 

A flow of electricity or electric current is effected if bodies 
having different voltage are connected with each other by 
means of a conducting material or conductor. 



A good conductor is one that has a low resistance to cur- 
rents passing through it, whereas a poor conductor has a high 
resistance. Substances possessing an exceedingly high resist- 
ance are spoken of as non-conductors. 

Ohm's Law. 

The unit of electric current is called "ampere" and the 
amount of current or the amperes that will flow through a 
conductor depends upon the electric pressure or voltage as 
well as upon the resistance of the conductor, which is meas- 
ured by units designated as "ohm." 

This is known as Ohm's Law and its general expression is: 

volts 

amperes=-; 

ohms 

For finding the resistance, that is the ohms, the formula 
will be : 

volts 

ohms = 

amperes 

Like with water or steam, electric power depends upon 
and is the product of pressure and current. The unit of elec- 
tric power being termed a "watt" so : watts = volts X amperes. 

Since 1 watt per minute equals 44 1 / 4 pounds, so 1 H.P. or 
33,000 foot pounds are equal to 746 watts for 1 minute. 

Series Connection. 

If a number of conductors are connected in one circuity 
they can be arranged either in series or in parallell con- 
nection. 

Assuming three devices or conductors having the resist- 
ance a, b and c respectively, are connected in a circuit in 
such a way that one terminal of "a" is connected to one of 
the terminals of "b" which again by its second terminal is 
connected to one terminal of "c" while the second terminals 
of both "a" and "c" are connected with the line, then this is 
termed "series connection." 

The total resistance of such a series circuit "r" equals the 
sum of the three resistances, that is : r — a + b + c. 

126 



Parallel or Multiple Connection. 

Parallel or multiple, also called shunt connection is effected 
by connecting one terminal of each conductor to one side of 
the line, while the other terminals of all conductors are con- 
nected to the other side of the line, so that each one gets the 
full voltage of the line. 

The combined or total resistance of such multiple circuit 
can be ascertained by the formula 

-=— 4- — + -etc. 
r a b c 

Dynamos, Motors. 

Generators or dynamos and motors have a field and an 
armature. 

The field is that part of the machine which has a constant 
magnetism, whereas the armature is that part in which the 
magnetic force or magnetism is changing continually. 

A shunt dynamo is one where the field has enough resist- 
ance to stand the full line voltage and where field and arma- 
ture are placed in parallel on the line. In such a shunt 
generator, the voltage will drop as the load is put on, hence 
it should be started with the load off to let the field build up. 

In a shunt motor the speed is nearly constant at all loads, 
for which reason they are used wherever this is required. 

A series machine is one where the field is in a series with 
the armature, the same current going through both, the field 
having low resistance. 

A series generator must have the load on to start as the 
field must have current to build up this magnetism. 

A series motor is used where a variable speed is wanted 
and a heavy pull at start ; hence street cars use series motors. 

Most generators are built by combining the series and 
shunt in which case they are termed "compound machines." 
The shunt field will build up the magnetism at start and when 
the load comes on the series coil will build up the magnetism 
and make up for the drop in voltage which would occur if the 
machine were only a shunt. 

If a generator has enough turns in the series coil so that 
when the load comes on the voltage goes up, the machine 
is said to be over-compounded. 



Direct Current ; Alternating Current. 

The term direct current is applied where the current is 
only in one direction as is true with all batteries and D. C. 
generators. 

Alternating current is one where the voltage is constantly 
changing from positive to negative and negative to posi- 
tive, etc. 

The voltage of an A. C. generator generally follows a sine 
curve. 

A complete change of direction of an alternating current 
is called a cycle, and a 60 cycle line means a line where the 
voltage makes 60 complete changes per second. 

Ohm's law cannot be used with alternating current circuits 
where there is resistance. 

Primary Batteries. 

To obtain high voltage, connect the carbon of a battery 
to the zinc of the next and so forth while to obtain high cur- 
rent, connect all the carbons together in a series and all the 
zincs in another series. 



128 



CHAPTER XL 
Figuring in the Bakeshop. 

1. How much water is required for a dough made from 1 
bbl. (196 lbs.) of flour if the absorption of the respective flour 
is 63% ? 

Sixty-three per cent is equal to 0.63 for 1 ; hence for 196 
lbs. we need 196 X 0.63 = 123.48 lbs. or figuring 8y 3 lbs. of 
water as being 1 gal., this equals 123.48 -^ 8% = 14.8 gal. 

2. How many loaves can be made out of 1 bbl. of flour, 
using 14!/o gal. = 120 lbs. of water, 5 lbs. of sugar, 3 lbs. of 
yeast, 5 lbs. of lard and 4 lbs. of salt, allowing 3% loss during 
fermentation and scaling the loaf at 18 oz. ? 

Total material 196 -f 120 + 5 + 3 -4- 5 + 4 = 333 lbs. Loss 
during fermentation is 333 X 0.03 = 9.99 lb. Since 1 loaf 
requires 18 oz. = 1% lb., so of the 323 lbs. of dough left after 
fermentation, we obtain 323 ■—- 1% = 287 loaves. 

3. How much material is required for making 2,000 
loaves, scaled off at 18 ounces and using the materials as 
indicated in example No. 2? 

Since, according to example No. 2, 287 loaves are obtained 
out of 1 bbl. of flour, so for making 2,000 loaves we need 
2000 -r- 287 = 6.97 or in a round number 7 bbls. of flour. 

Water 120 X 7 = 840 lbs. or 840 ~ 8% = 100.8 gal. 

Sugar 5 X 7 = 35 lbs. Yeast 3 X 7 = 21 lbs. 

Lard 5 X 7 = 35 lbs. and Salt 4 X 7 = 28 lbs. 

4. What is the cost of material for the dough in example 
No. 2, the prices of the respective materials being: flour $7.35 
per barrel, sugar 6 cents, yeast 20 cents, lard 18 cents and 
salt 2 1 /2 cents a pound and allowing 5 pounds of flour for 
dusting. 

Cost of material = 7.35 + 5 X 0.06 + 3 X 0.20 + 5 X0.18 

7 35 X 5 

+ 4 X 0.025 + — = 7.35 -f 0.30 + 0.60 + 0.90 + 0.10 4- 

196 

0.19 = 9.44. Ans. $9.44. 

5. What is the cost of material for 100 loaves in example 
No. 4? 

129 



The number of loaves obtainable being 287 (ex. No. 2) and 

the total cost of material $9.4-4, so the cost for 100 loaves is 

9 44 
100 X — = $3,289. 

287 

6. What must be the selling price of these 100 loaves, 
assuming that cost of materials should be 60%, cost of manu- 
facture, overhead and profit 40% of the selling price? 

From the proportion X : 3.289 : : 100 : 60 we find the selling 

price X = 3.289 X — = $5,482. 
60 

7. How heavy must a loaf be scaled off, if it is to be sold 
by the baker at 8 cents and if the dough is made from 1 bbl. 
of flour, 120 lbs. of water, 4 lbs. of sugar, 2^ lbs. of yeast, 
4:Y 2 lbs. of lard and 3 lbs. of salt, allowing 6 lbs. of flour for 
dusting. Price of flour $8.50 per barrel, sugar 7 cents, yeast 
22 cents, lard 20 cents and salt 2 cents a pound, and assum- 
ing the cost of material to be 55%, labor, overhead and profit 
45% of the selling price? 

The total weight of the mix is 196 + 120 + 4 + 2% + 4y 2 
+ 3 =330 lbs. 

The total cost of material is 8.50 + 4 X 0.07 + 24/ 2 X 0.22 

+ 4U. X 0.20 -f 3 X 0.02 -f 8 ' 50 X 6 = 8.50 + 0.28 + 0.55 + 

196 

0.90 -f 0.06 + 0.26 = 10.55. 

Since this $10.55 is to be 55% of the selling price, so the 

total selling price of all the loaves made from the entire mix 

must be 10.55 X — = $19.18. 
55 

At 8 cents per loaf this would necessitate the making of 
1918 -=- 8 = 240 loaves out of the mix. 

From the weight of the total mix, 330 lbs., about 2%% are 
lost during fermentation, leaving 321% lbs. or 5,148 ounces 
for scaling off; so every loaf must be scaled off at 5148-4-240 
= 21.5 ounces. 

8. What must be the temperature of the waier for a mix 

of 1 bbl. of flour and 120 lbs. of water, if the temperature of 
the dough should be 82° F. assuming the temperature of the 
flour to be 60° F. the temperature of the other ingredients, 



sugar, lard, yeast and salt, the same as that of the bake- 
shop, 80° F.? 

Let T indicate the desired temperature of the dough (82°) 
and t x the temperature of the flour (60° F.), then the tempera- 
ture of the water, t 2 , is to be calculated by the formula : 

t 2 == T + 0.66 X (T — tj or closely 5 X T ~ 2 X tx that 

is : t s = 82 + 0.66 X (82 — 60) = 82 + 0.66 X 22 = 96.5° or 

5 X 82 — 2 X 60 410 — 120 290 

— = = = 96.6°. 

3 3 3 

9. How much is the interest on a loan of $1,800 at 
5V2% per annum for 2 years 3 months? 

iSince 2 years 3 months is 2 1 / 4 years, so the interest is 
214 X 1800 X 0.055 = $222.75. 

10. How much does a discount of 15% amount on a bill 
of $86.40? 

86.40 X 0.15 = $12.96. 

11. How much is to be paid on a bill of $103.60 allowing 
20% discount? 

If the discount is 20%, then the amount payable is 80% or 
0.80 ; hence on a bill of $103.60 there is to be paid 103.60 X 

0.80 = $82.88. 

12. What amount must be paid on a bill of $219.20 allow- 
ing a compound discount of 25%, 12% and 5%? 

The amount payable after allowing the first discount, 25%, 
would be 75% or 0.75 of the bill. 

This, however, will be reduced by the second discount, 
12%, to 0.88% of the amount calculated after the first dis- 
count, that is to 0.75 X 0.88. 

And the third discount, 5% reduces this amount again to 
0.95 or to a total of 0.75 X 0.88 X 0.95 of the original amount. 
Hence the amount to be paid is 219.20 X 0.75 X 0.88 X 0.95 = 
$137.38. 



131 



CHAPTER XII. 

Mensuration. 

Mensuration is that branch of mathematics or general 
geometry which pertains to the measuring or calculating of 
lines, areas and solids or volumes. 

Measuring of Areas or Surfaces. 

Since it is in general impractical if indeed not impossible 
to measure areas directly, their size has to be caluculated from 
certain dimensions referring to the respective surface. 

Square (Fig. 1).* 

A square is a quadrangle in which all sides as well as all 
angles are equal, the latter being right angles (90°). 

To find the area of a square, multiply its side by itself ; in 
other words, if the side is designated as "a" then the area 
of a square equals aXa^a 2 , 

For example : A square whose side is 15 inches, has an 
area of 15 X 15 — 225 sq. in. 

Or : The area of a square of 8 ft. 6 in. equals 8y 2 X 8V2 = 
72V4 sq. ft. 

Rectangle (Fig. 2). 

A rectangle is a quadrilateral having 4 equal angles (90°), 
but in which only the opposite sides are equal, while the adja- 
cent sides are of different length. 

The area of a rectangle is obtained by multiplying its two 
adjacent sides; or, if these sides are designated as "a" and 
"b," respectively, this area is a X b. 

Ex. What is the floor space of a room 18 ft. 9 in. long 
and 16 feet wide? Since 18 ft. 9 in. equals 18^4 ft. so the 
area is 1834 x 16 = 300 sq. ft. 

Triangle (Fig. 3). 

For calculating the area of a triangle one of its three sides 
is selected as the base, "b," while the vertical distance of the 
opposite point from the base is called height, "h." 



* See Plate X. 

132 



Then the area of the triangle is equal to y% of the product 
of the base multiplied by the height; that is: area of triangle 
equals y 2 X b X h. 

Ex. A triangular piece of land is 245 feet long, while its 
opposite corner is at a distance of 180 ft. from the base. The 
area of this piece of land is y 2 X 245 X 180 = 22,050 sq. ft. 

Polygonal Figures (Fig. 4 and 5). 

Any other figure bounded by straight lines can be calcu- 
lated by dividing the same either into a number of equal 
triangles as in the case of a regular polygon (Fig. 4), or into 
unequal triangles and eventually rectangles in figures of irreg- 
ular shape (Fig. 5), which are then calculated individually and 
the sum of which represents the total area of the respective 
figure. 

Circle (Fig. 6). 

A circle is a closed curved line, all points of which are 
equidistant from a point within the circle, called the centre. 
The distance from the centre to any point of the circumference 
of the circle is the radius, generally designated as "r, " while 
a straight line drawn from any point of the circumference 
through the centre to the opposite side of the circumference is 
called diameter "d." 

The diameter is double the radius, or the radius is one-half 
of the diameter : d = 2 X r and r = y 2 X d. 

The circumference of the circle is found by multiplying the 
diameter by 3.14159. . . . 

The factor 3.14159 . . . which is generally designated by 
"at" is infinite; but sufficiently accurate results are obtained 

22 
by using the abbreviated value 3.14 or — hence the circum- 
ference of a circle equals d X "rn-" = d X 3.14. 

The area of the circle, however, is the square of the radius 
multiplied by 3.14, in other words : area of circle equals 
r X r X 3.14 = r 2 X 3.14. 

Ex. What is the circumference and area of a round table 
6 ft. in diameter? 

Circumference 6 X 3.14 = 18.84 feet. 

Area 3 X 3 X 3.14 =28.26 sq. ft. 

133 



Measuring of Solids. 

As with areas, so in the case of solids, their size is generally 
not measured directly but calculated; hollow spaces, however, 
form an exception insofar they can be measured by filling 
them with a liquid, f. i., water, the quantity of which is then 
determined directly. 

Cube (Fig. 7). 

A cube is a solid or volume having equal length, width and 
height ; its sides are 6 equal squares. 

The volume of a cube, having the side "a," is a X a X a 
= a 3 . 

Ex. A cubical box has a side of 3 ft. 4 in., what is its 
volume ? 

Volume = 3ys X 3% X 3y 3 = — X ^-X -^-= -^- = 

37 T V cu. ft. 

Rectangular Prism (Fig. 8). 

If a solid or a space is bounded and enclosed by 6 rectan- 
gles, which are all joined at right angles, and which may be 
designated as top and bottom, front and rear, right and left 
side, and of which each opposite pair is equal, it is termed a 
rectangular prism. 

The volume of such a body is found by multiplying the 
length by the width by the height ; or if these dimensions are 
designated by "a," "b" and "h," respectively, this volume is 
a X b X h. 

.Since a X b equals the rectangle forming the base of the 
prism, "B," this volume can also be looked upon as being the 
product of base times height, or B X h. 

Ex. A room is 24 ft. long 18 ft. wide and 12 ft. high ; then 
the volume of air in this room is 24 X 18 X 12 = 5,184 cu. ft. 

Irregular Prism (Fig. 9). 

If a prismatic space is bounded and enclosed by a number 
of unequal rectangles of the same length, set at right angles 
with reference to top and bottom, which are equal but which 
may be either regular polygons or else may have any shape, 
such a body or volume is an irregular prism. 



The volume of the same is calculated according to the same 
formula as is the rectangular prism, that is : base times height, 
or B X h- 

Cylinder (Fig. 10). 

A body or space whose top and bottom are two circles of 
the same size and whose side is a continuous curved surface 
extending along the circumference of top and bottom is called 
a cylinder. 

Since for such cylinder the formula of a prism is equally 
valid, its volume is base X height ; the base being, however, a 
circle, while by height "h" is meant the vertical distance be- 
tween the centers of top and bottom, so if the radius of the 
bottom is designated as "r," the volume is r X r X 3.14 X h. 

Ex. A cylindrical tank is 8 ft. wide and 10 ft. high. How 
many gallons of water will it hold ? 

The volume is 4 X 4 X 3.14 XlO = 502.4 cu. ft. or since 1 
cu. ft. is very closely equal to 7% gal. this tank holds 7*4 X 
502.2 = 3,768 gal. 

Pyramid (Fig. 11). 

A pyramid is a body terminating at the top in a point, its 
sides being triangles while the bottom may be any figure 
bounded by straight lines. 

The volume of a pyramid is one-third of the volume of a 
prism having the same base and the same height as the pyra- 
mid; hence the formula is y 3 X B X h, where "B" indicates the 
base and "h" the height of the pyramid, that is the vertical 
distance of the top point from the base. 

Cone (Fig. 12). 

A body which like the pyramid ends at the top in a point, 
but whose base is a circle, is called a cone, and its volume is 
one-third of the volume of a cylinder having the same base 
and the same height as the cone, hence the volume of cone 
=Vs X r >< r X 3.14 x h. 

Frustum of Cone (Fig. 13). 

Cutting off the upper part from a cone by a plane parallel 
to its base, a tub-shaped body is left, which is called a "frus- 

135 



turn." Its top and bottom are circles of different diameter, 
while its height is to be taken as the vertical distance between 
top and bottom. 

The volume of such a "tub" can be calculated approx- 
imately from its mean radius or diameter, that is, the width 
in the center and its height, "h." 

The mean radius equals one-half of the sum of top and 
bottom radius, or if the same is designated by "m," m = y 2 X 
(r-f-R), where "r" is the radius at the top and "R" that at 
the bottom or m = % X (d + D) if "d" and "D" are the re- 
spective diameters. 

Then the volume of the frustum equals mX^X 3.14 X h- 

Ex. A tub is 5 ft. 6 in. wide at the top and 6 ft. 6 in. at 
the bottom, height being 5 ft., what is its volume? 

Since its top diameter is 5 ft. 6 in. ; so the top radius is 2 
ft. 9 in. and that at the bottom is 3 ft. 3 in. ; hence the mean 
radius m = y 2 X (2% -4- 314) = 3 ft., and the same value is 
obtained from top and bottom diameter as *4 X (o 1 /^ + G 1 /^). 

Hence the volume is 3 X 3 X 3.14 Xo = 141.3 cu. ft. 

Sphere (Fig. 14 and 15). 

The volume of a sphere having the diameter "d" = 1/6 X 
d X d X d X 3.14 = 1/6 X d 3 X3.14, while that of a hemis- 
phere is one-half of this amount or T V X d X d X d X 3.14. 



Appendix 



MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 



U. S. SYSTEM. 



mile 
mile 

yard 

foot 

nautical 
mile 



5280 feet 

1760 yards 

3 feet 

12 inches 

statute 
miles 



\=™\ 



METRIC OR DECIMAL SYSTEM. 

Length Measure: 

1 kilometer = 1000 meters 

1 meter — 10 decimeters 

1 decimeter = 10 centimeters 

1 centimeter — 10 millimeters 

1 meter — 100 centimeters 

1 micron — 0.001 millimeters 



Area or Square Measure: 

1 square mile = 640 acres 1 hektare 

1 acre = 4840 square yards 1 are 

1 square yard = 9 square feet 1 square meter 

1 square foot = 144 square inches 1 sq. decimeter 



10000 sq. meters 
100 sq. meters 
100 sq. decimeters 
100 sq. centimeters 
1 sq. centimeter = 100 sq. millimeters 



Volume or Cubic Measure: 

1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet 1 cubic meter = 1000 cub. decimeters 

1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches 1 cub. decimeter = 1000 cub. centimeters 
1 cord = 128 cubic feet 1 cub. centimeter = 1000 cub. millimeters 



a. Liquid Measure. 
1 gal. = 4 quarts 
1 quart = 2 pints 
1 pint = 4 gills 
1 gal. = 128 fluid ounces 

1 gal. = 231 cubic inches 
1 cub. ft. — 7.48 gal. 



Capacity: 

1 hektoliter = 100 liters 

1 liter = 10 deciliters 

1 deciliter — 10 centiliters 

1 centiliter = 10 milliliters 

1 liter = 1 cubic decimeter 

1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters 



b. Dry Measure. 
1 bushel = 4 pecks 

1 peck = 8 quarts 

1 quart = 2 pints 

1 bushel = 2150.4 cub. in. 

1 bbl. of flour = 3% cub. feet. 

Avoirdupois (commercial). 
1 ton = 2000 pounds 

1 long ton = 2240 pounds 

1 hundred weight = 100 pounds 
1 pound = 16 ounces 

1 ounce — 437.5 grains 

1 pound = 7000 grains 



1 cubic meter = 1000 cubic decimeters 
1 cubic meter = 1000 liters 
1 cubic meter = 10 hektoliters 
1 hektoliter = 100 liters 

Weight: 

1 ton = 1000 kilograms 

1 kilogram — 1000 grams 
1 gram = 10 decigrams 

1 decigram = 10 centigrams 
1 centigram = 10 milligrams 
1 gram = 1000 milligrams 

1 gram is the weight of 1 cub. centi- 
meter of distilled water at 39° F. 



137 



Comparison of U. S. and Metric Units. 



Length Measure: 



1 mile = 1.6094 kilometers 
1 yard = 0.9144 meters 
1 foot = 0.3048 meters 
1 foot = 30.48 centimeters 
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 
1 inch = 25.4 millimeters 



1 


kilometer 


^= 


0.6214 miles 


1 


kilometer 


= 


1093.6 yards 


1 


meter 


= 


1.0936 yards 


1 


meter 


= 


3.2808 feet 


1 


meter 


= 


39.37 inches 


1 


decimeter 


— 


3.937 inches 


1 


centimeter 


= 


0.3937 inches 



Area or Square Measure: 

= 0.4047 hektares 1 square kilometer 



1 acre 

1 acre = 4047 square meters 

1 square yard = 0.8361 square meters 
1 square foot = 9.29 square decimeters 



247.1 acres 
1 hektare = 2.471 acres 

1 are = 1076.4 sq. ft. 

1 square meter = 1.196 sq. yds. 



square luot = y.^y square uecimeiers jl square meter — j..j.yo sq. yas. 

square foot = 929 square centimeters 1 sq. decimeter = 15.5 sq. inches 

1 square inch = 6.45 square centimeters 1 sq. centimeter = 0.155 sq. inches 



Volume and Capacity: 



1 cubic 


foot 


= 28.32 cub. de 


scimeters 


1 cubic meter 


= 35.314 cubic feet 


1 cubic 


inch 


= 16.39 cub. centimeters 


1 cub. decimeter 


= 61.0 cubic inches 


1 gallon 




= 3.7854 liters 




1 cub. centimeter 


= 0.061 cubic inches 


1 quart 




= 0.9464 liters 




1 hektoliter 


= 26.42 gallons 


1 pint 




= 0.4732 liters 




1 liter 


= 1.0568 quarts 


1 bushel 




= 35.239 liters 




1 hektoliter 


— 2.838 bushels 


1 peck 




= 8.810 liters 




1 liter 


= 0.9081 dry quarts 


1 quart, 


dry 


:= 1.101 liters 









1 pound = 453.6 grams 

1 ounce = 28.35 

1 grain = 64.8 milligrams 



Weight: 



1 kilogram 
1 gram 
1 gram 



2.205 pounds 
0.0353 ounces 
15.432 grains 



BAUME DEGREES (AMERICAN STANDARD) AND 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 60° F. 

a. Liquids Heavier Than Water. 



Degrees 
Baume 


Specific 
Gravity 


Degrees 
Baume 


Specific 
Gravity 


Degrees 
Baume 


Specific 
Gravity 





1.000 


18 


1.142 


36 


1.330 


1 


1.007 


19 


1.151 


38 


1.355 


2 


1.014 


20 


1.160 


40 


1.381 


3 


1.021 


21 


1.169 


42 


1.408 


4 


1.028 


22 


1.179 


44 


1.436 


5 


1.036 


23 


1.189 


46 


1.465 


6 


1.043 


24 


1.198 


48 


1.495 


7 


1.051 


25 


1.208 


50 


1.526 


8 


1.058 


26 


1.219 


52 


1.559 


9 


1.066 


27 


1.229 


54 


1.593 


10 


1.074 


28 


1.239 


56 


1.629 


11 


1.082 


29 


1.250 


58 


1.667 


12 


1.090 


30 


1.261 


60 


1.706 


13 


1.099 


31 


1.272 


62 


1.747 


14 


1.107 


32 


1.283 


64 


1.790 


15 


1.115 


33 


1.295 


66 


1.S35 


16 


1.124 


34 


1.306 


68 


1.883 


17 


1.133 


35 


1.318 


70 


1.933 



b. Liquids Lighter Than Water. 



Degrees 
Baume 


Specific 
Gravity 


Degrees 
Baume 


Specific 
Gravity 


Degrees 
Baume 


Specific 
Gravity 


10 


1.000 


28 


0.8S6 


46 


0.796 


11 


0.993 


29 


0.881 


48 


0.787 


12 


0.986 


30 


0.875 


50 


0.778 


13 


0.979 


31 


0.870 


52 


0.769 


14 


0.972 


32 


0.864 


54 


0.761 


15 


0.966 


33 


0.859 


56 


0.753 


16 


0.959 


34 


0.854 


58 


0.745 


17 


0.952 


35 


0.849 


60 


0.737 


18 


0.946 


36 


0.843 


62 


0.729 


19 


0.940 


37 


0.838 


64 


0.722 


20 


0.933 


38 


0.833 


66 


0.714 


21 


0.927 


39 


0.828 


6S 


0.707 


22 


0.921 


40 


0.824 


70 


0.700 


23 


0.915 


41 


0.819 


72 


0.693 


24 


0.909 


42 


0.814 


74 


0.6S6 


25 

26 


0.903 
0.897 


43 
44 


0.809 
0.805 


76 

78 


0.680 
0.673 


27 


0.892 


45 


0.800 


80 


0.667 



139 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND STRENGTH OF SUGAR 
SOLUTION IN PERCENTS (BALLING). 



Percents 
Balling 


Specific 
Gravity 


Weight of 

1 gallon 

in pounds 


Pounds of 
sugar in 
1 gallon 


Percents 
Balling 


Specific 
Gravity 


Weight of 

1 gallon 

in pounds 


Pounds of 
sugar in 
1 gallon 


_2 


1.0007 


8.345 


0.017 


12.2 


1.0493 


8.750 


1.067 


.4 


1.0015 


8.352 


0.033 


.4 


1.0502 


8.758 


1.086 


.6 


1.0023 


8.359 


0.050 


.6 


1.0510 


8.765 


1.104 


.8 


1.0031 


8.365 


0.067 


.8 


1.0519 


8.772 


1.122 


1.0 


1.0038 


8.371 


0.084 


13.0 


1.0527 


8.779 


1.141 


,2 


1.0046 


8.377 


0.100 


.2 


1.0536 


8.786 


1.160 


.4 


1.0054 


8.384 


0.117 


.4 


1.0544 


8.793 


1.178 


.6 


1.0062 


8.391 


0.134 


.6 


1.0553 


8.801 


1.197 


.8 


1.0070 


8.397 


0.151 


.8 


1.0561 


8.808 


1.215 


2.0 


1.0077 


8.403 


0.168 


14.0 


1.0570 


8.815 


1.234 


.2 


1.0085 


8.410 


0.185 


.2 


1.0578 


8.822 


1.253 


.4 


1.0093 


8.417 


0.202 


.4 


1.0587 


8.829 


1.272 


.6 


1.0101 


8.423 


0.219 


.6 


1.0596 


8.836 


1.291 


.8 


1.0109 


8.430 


0.236 


.8 


1.0604 


8.843 


1.309 


3.0 


1.0117 


8.437 


0.253 


15.0 


1.0613 


8.850 


1.328 


_2 


1.0125 


8.443 


0.270 


.2 


1.0621 


8.857 


1.346 


.4 


1.0133 


8.450 


0.287 


.4 


1.0630 


8.864 


1.365 


.6 


1.0141 


8.457 


0.304 


.6 


1.0639 


8.872 


1.384 


.8 


1.0149 


8.463 


0.322 


.8 


1.0647 


8.879 


1.402 


4.0 


1.0157 


8.470 


0.339 


16.0 


1.0656 


8.886 


1.421 


.2 


1.0165 


8.477 


0.356 


.2 


1.0665 


8.894 


1.440 


.4 


1.0173 


8.484 


0.373 


.4 


1.0674 


8.902 


1.458 


.6 


1.0181 


8.490 


0.390 


.6 


1.0682 


8.909 


1.479 


.8 


1.0189 


8.497 


0.408 


.8 


1.0691 


8.916 


1.498 


5.0 


1.0197 


8.504 


0.425 


17.0 


1.0700 


8.923 


1.517 


.2 


1.0205 


8.511 


0.442 


.2 


1.0709 


8.930 


1.536 


.4 


1.0213 


8.517 


0.459 


.4 


1.0717 


8.937 


1.555 


.6 


1.0221 


8.523 


0.477 


.6 


1.0726 


8.944 


1.574 


.8 


1.0229 


8.530 


0.495 


.8 


1.0735 


8.952 


1.594 


6.0 


1.0237 


8.537 


0.512 


18.0 


1.0744 


8.960 


1.613 


.2 


1.0245 


8.543 


0.529 


.2 


1.0753 


8.967 


1.632 


.4 


1.0253 


8.550 


0.546 


.4 


1.0761 


8.974 


1.651 


.6 


1.0261 


8.557 


0.564 


.6 


1.0770 


8.981 


1.670 


.8 


1.0269 


8.564 


0.582 


.8 


1.0779 


8.989 


1.690 


7.0 


1.0277 


8.570 


0.600 


19.0 


1.0788 


8.997 


1.709 


.2 


1.0286 


8.578 


0.618 


2 


1.0797 


9.004 


1.729 


.4 


1.0294 


8.585 


0.635 


.4 


1.0806 


9.012 


1.748 


.6 


1.0302 


8.591 


0.652 


.6 


1.0815 


9.020 


1.768 


.8 


1.0310 


8.598 


0.670 


.8 


1.0824 


9.027 


1.787 


8.0 


1.0318 


8.605 


0.688 


20.0 


1.0832 


9.034 


1.807 


.2 


1.0327 


8.612 


0.706 


.2 


1.0841 


9.041 


1,826 


.4 


1.0335 


8.619 


0.724 


.4 


1.0850 


9.048 


1.846 


.6 


1.0343 


8.625 


0.742 


.6 


1.0859 


9.055 


1.865 


.8 


1.0351 


8.632 


0.760 


.8 


1.0868 


9.063 


1.885 


9.0 


1.0359 


8.639 


0.777 


21.0 


1.0877 


9.070 


1.905 


2 


1.0368 


8.646 


0.795 


.2 


1.0886 


9.078 


1.925 


.4 


1.0376 


8.653 


0.813 


.4 


1.0895 


9.086 


1.944 


.6 


1.0384 


8.660 


0.831 


.6 


1.0904 


9.094 


1.964 


.8 


1.0393 


8.667 


0.849 


.8 


1.0914 


9.102 


1.984 


10.0 


1.0401 


' 8.673 


0.867 


22.0 


1.0923 


9.110 


2.004 


.2 


1.0409 


8.680 


0.885 


.2 


1.0932 


9.117 


2.024 


.4 


1.0418 


8.687 


0.903 


.4 


1.0941 


9.124 


2.044 


.6 


1.0426 


8.695 


0.922 


.6 


1.0950 


9.131 


2.064 


.8 


1.0434 


8.701 


0.940 


.8 


1.0959 


9.139 


2.084 


11.0 


1.0443 


8.708 


0.958 


23.0 


1.0968 


9.147 


2.104 


.2 


1.0451 


8.715 


0.976 


2 


1.0977 


9.154 


2.124 


.4 


1.0459 


8.721 


0.994 


.4 


1.0986 


9.162 


2.144 


.6 


1.0468 


8.730 


1.013 


.6 


1.0996 


9.170 


2.164 


.8 


1.0476 


8.736 


1.031 


.8 


1.1005 


9.177 


2.184 


12.0 


1.0485 


8.743 


1.049 


24.0 


1.1014 


9.185 


2.204 



140 



COMPARISON OF THERMOMETER SCALES. 



c. 


F. 


R. 


C. 


F. 


R. 


C. 


F. 


R. 


260 


500 


208 


79 


174.2 


63.2 


26 


78.8 


20.8 


255 


491 


204 


78 


172.4 


62.4 


25 


77.0 


20.0 


250 


482 


200 


77 


170.6 


61.6 


24 


75.2 


19.2 


245 


473 


196 


76 


168.8 


60.8 


23 


73.4 


18.4 


240' 


464 


192 


75 


167.0 


60.0 


22 


71.6 


17.6 


235 


455 


188 


74 


165.2 


59.2 


21 


69.8 


16.8 


230 


446 


184 


73 


163.4 


58.4 


20 


68.0 


16.0 


225 


437 


180 


72 


161.6 


57.6 


19 


66.2 


15.2 


220 


428 


176 


71 


159.8 


56.8 


18 


64.4 


14.4 


215 


419 


172 


70 


158.0 


56.0 


17 


62.6 


13.6 


210 


410 


168 


69 


156.2 


55.2 


16 


60.8 


12.8 


205 


401 


164 


68 


154.4 


54.4 


15 


59.0 


12.0 


200 


392 


160 


67 


152.6 


53.6 


14 


57.2 


11.2 


195 


383 


156 


66 


150.8 


52.8 


13 


55.4 


10.4 


190 


374 


152 


65 


149.0 


52.0 


12 


53.6 


9.6 


185 


365 


148 


64 


147.2 


51.2 


11 


51.8 


8.8 


180 


356 


144 


63 


145.4 


50.4 


10 


50.0 


8.0 


17.5 


347 


140 


62 


143.6 


49.6 


9 


48.2 


7.2 


170 


338 


136 


61 


141.8 


48.8 


8 


46.4 


6.4 


165 


329 


132 


60 


140.0 


48.0 


7 


44.6 


5.6 


160 


320 


128 


59 


138.2 


47.2 


6 


42.8 


4.8 


155 


311 


124 


58 


136.4 


46.4 


5 


41.0 


4.0 


150 


302 


120 


57 


134.6 


45.6 


4 


39.2 


3.2 


145 


293 


116 


56 


132.8 


44.8 


3 


37.4 


2.4 


140 


284 


112 


55 


131.0 


44.0 


2 


35.6 


1.6 


135 


275 


108 


54 


129.2 


43.2 


1 


33.8 


0.8 


130 


266 


104 


53 


127.4 


42.4 





32.0 





125 


257 


100 


52 


125.6 


41.6 


— 1 


30.2 


— 0.8 


120 


248 


90 


51 


123.8 


40.8 


2 


28.4 


— 1.6 


115 


239 


92 


50 


122.0 


40.0 


— 3 


26.6 


— 2.4 


110 


230 


88 


49 


120.2 


39.2 


— 4 


24.8 


— 3.2 


105 


221 


84 


48 


118.4 


38.4 


— 5 


23.0 


— 4.0 


100 


212 


80 


47 


116.6 


37.6 


— 6 


21.2 


— 4.8 


99 


210.2 


79.2 


46 


114.8 


36.8 


— 7 


19.4 


— 5.6 


98 


208.4 


78.4 


45 


113.0 


36.0 


— 8 


17.6 


— 6.4 


97 


206.6 


77.6 


44 


111.2 


35.2 


— 9 


15.8 


— 7.2 


96 


204.8 


76.8 


43 


109.4 


34.4 


— 10 


14.0 


— 8.0 


95 


203.0 


76.0 


42 


107.6 


33.6 


— 11 


12.2 


— 8.8 


94 


201.2 


75.2 


41 


105.8 


32.8 


— 12 


10.4 


— 9.6 


93 


199.4 


74.4 


40 


104.0 


32.0 


— 13 


8.6 


— 10.4 


92 


197.6 


73.6 


39 


102.2 


31.2 


— 14 


6.8 


— 11.2 


91 


195.8 


72.8 


38 


100.4 


30.4 


— 15 


5.0 


— 12.0 


90 


194.0 


72.0 


37 


98.6 


29.6 


— 16 


3.2 


— 12.8 


89 


192.2 


71.2 


36 


96.8 


28.8 


— 17 


1.4 


— 13.6 


88 


190.4 


70.4 


35 


95.0 


28.0 


— 18 


— 0.4 


— 14.4 


87 


188.6 


69.6 


34 


93.2 


27.2 


— 19 


— 2.2 


— 15.2 


86 


186.8 


68.8 


33 


91.4 


26.4 


— 20 


— 4.0 


— 16.0 


85 


185.0 


68.0 


32 


89.6 


25.6 


— 21 


— 5.8 


— 16.8 


84 


183.2 


67.2 


31 


87.8 


24.8 


22 


— 7.6 


— 17.6 


83 


181.4 


66.4 


30 


86.0 


24.0 


— 23 


— 9.4 


— 18.4 


82 


179.6 


65.6 


29 


84.2 


23.2 


— 24 


— 11.2 


— 19.2 


81 


177.8 


64.8 


28 


82.4 


22.4 


—25 


— 13.0 


— 20.0 


80 


176.0 


64.0 


27 


80.6 


21.6 









Formula for the Conversion of Thermometer Degrees. 

°C. to °F. multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 32. 

°C. to °R. multiply by 4 and divide by 5. 

'F. to °C. subtract 32, then multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 

'F. to °R. subtract 32, then multiply by 4 and divide by 9. 

°R. to °C. multiply by 5 and divide by 4. 

"R. to °F. multiply by 9, divide by 4, then add 32. 

141 



DEGREE OF HUMIDITY. 

(In Percents of Saturated Condition, as Determined by Wet and Dry 
Bulb Hygrometer.) 



Difference 
between 






DEY BULB 


(AIR TEMPERATURE "I 


•) 




dry and wet 
bulb. 


55° 


60° 


65° 


70° 


75° 


80° 


85° 


90° 


95° 


100° 


20° 


2 


7 


13 


19 


25 


30 


33 


36 


39 


41 


19 


4 


10 


16 


22 


28 


32 


36 


39 


42 


44 


18 


7 


13 


19 


25 


31 


35 


38 


41 


44 


46 


17 


11 


17 


23 


29 


34 


38 


41 


44 


47 


49 


16 


15 


21 


27 


33 


37 


41 


44 


47 


49 


51 


15 


20 


26 


31 


36 


40 


44 


47 


49 


51 


54 


14 


25 


30 


35 


40 


43 


47 


50 


52 


54 


56 


13 


30 


34 


39 


44 


47 


50 


53 


55 


57 


59 


12 


35 


39 


43 


48 


51 


54 


56 


58 


60 


62 


11 


40 


43 


47 


51 


54 


57 


59 


61 


63 


65 


10 


45 


48 


52 


55 


58 


61 


63 


65 


66 


68 


9 


50 


53 


56 


60 


62 


64 


66 


68 


69 


71 


8 


55 


58 


61 


64 


66 


68 


70 


71 


72 


74 


7 


60 


63 


65 


68 


70 


71 


73 


74 


76 


77 


6 


65 


68 


70 


72 


74 


75 


76 


78 


79 


80 


5 


70 


73 


75 


77 


78 


79 


80 


81 


82 


83 


4 


76 


78 


80 


81 


82 


83 


84 


85 


86 


86 


3 


82 


83 


84 


85 


6 


87 


88 


88 


89 


89 


2 


88 


89 


89 


90 


90 


91 


92 


92 


93 


93 


1 


94 


94 


94 


95 


95 


96 


96 


96 


98 


96 





100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 



Dictionary and Definitions of Technical Terms. 

With reference to this dictionary, it must be stated that the same ia 
confined chiefly to such terms as are only touched upon briefly in the text 
of this Manual, and therefore in its compilation no attempts towards 
completeness have been made. Nevertheless the same repeats explanation 
of some of the most important subjects even though they are already in- 
cluded in the text of this Manual. 



Absorption 

Acid 

Acidity- 
Aeration 
Albumen 

Albuminoids 



A characteristic property of flour to absorb and 
retain water. It is measured by the quantity of water 
obsorbed by the flour in order to produce a dough of 
normal consistency, and it is expressed in percents. 

Compounds of various elements, containing hydro- 
gen which is replaceable by a metal. Acids have a 
sharp, acrid taste and possess the property of turning 
blue litmus paper red (see Litmus Paper). 

Indicates the extent to which any one or a mixture 
of acids are present in a substance. (See acid.) 

The supplying or the charging of a body with air. 

Nitrogenous constituents of the animal and vege- 
table organisms, such as the white of an egg or the 
protoplasm of a cell. (See proteins.) 



A term formerly applied to certain nitrogenous 
compounds similar to albumen, occuring in the vege- 
table organism. Albuminoids are now generally termed 
protein. (See protein.) 

A layer of the wheat berry, next to the starch 
cells, consisting of a row of practically cubical cells 
containing protein. 

Substance capable of neutralizing an acid. Among 
alkalies caustic soda, potash and lime water (slacked 
lime) are the most common. 

Amino-Compounds Organic substances containing nitrogen and hydro- 
gen in combination. Amino-compounds are frequently 
products of the decomposition of proteins. 

Ampere The unit of electric current. 

Analysis 



Aleurone cells 



Alkali 



Ash 



The process whereby the composition of a material 
is determined. 

The mineral residue left after complete burning of 
a substance and composed mainly of potash, soda, lime, 
magnesia, sulphuric and phosphoric acid and silica. 



Atom 



Average value 



Bacteria 



Bicarbonate of 
soda 



Bran 



Break rolls 



British 
Unit 



Thermal 



By-Products 



Calorie 



Carbohydrates 



Carbon Dioxide 

Carbonic Acid 
Gas 



Casein 



Finest division or smallest particle of elementary 
matter. 

When applied to flour depends upon the amount 
and quality of bread produced, and is composed of four 
factors: the color of the flour, loaves to barrel, size of 
loaf and quality of loaf. The sum of these four factors 
divided by four gives the average value. 

Lowest form of plant life, microscopic in size, con- 
sisting of a single cell of protoplasm and to be found 
in the soil, in water and in many materials throughout 
nature. 

The acid sodium salt of carbonic acid, commonly 
known as baking soda. With acids or acid substances 
it gives off carbonic acid gas. 

The skin of the wheat berry, removed in milling. 
Consists essentially of epidermis, epicarp, endocarp and 
the spermoderm or testa. 

The corrugated rolls employed in milling for break- 
ing up the wheat berry into middlings. 

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature 
of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit; gen- 
erally indicated as B. T. U. 

Secondary products of an industry; so is cotton 
seed-meal a by-product of the cotton oil industry; 
skimmed and buttermilk are by-products of butter- 
making. 

The amount of heat required to raise the tempera- 
ture of one kilogram of water one degree Centigrade. 

Substances composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxy- 
gen, the latter two in the proportion in which they 
exist in water. Hence their name: carbo (carbon), 
hydrate (water). 

(See carbonic acid gas). 

Carbonic acid gas is one of the products of fer- 
mentation. It is also a common constituent of the air, 
used by plant life in building up starch and other sub- 
stances. 

A principal nitrogenous component part of milk 
and the essential constituent of cheese. 



Cell 



The smallest living unit of the animal or plant 
body; such as a yeast cell or blood corpuscle. 



Cellulose 



Clear Flour 

Cold water 
extract 

Compound 



Conditioning 

Congealing point 
Corn Flakes 

Cover Glass 

Cream of Tartar 

Crude Fibre 

Cuticle 
Decinormal 

Dextrine 

Dextrose 

Diastase 

Diastatic power 

Element 

Embyro 
Endocarp 



The substance which makes up the cell-wall and 
the fibrous matter of plants. Cotton fibre is almost 
pure cellulose. 

The flour made from that part of the middlings 
which is left after the patent flour has been extracted. 

The total of the substances that can be extracted 
from a material by cold water. 

In chemistry any substance composed of two or 
more elements. 

Technically or commercially certain mixtures of 
fats and oils are termed compounds. 

The process of treating wheat by the addition of a 
small percentage of water for the purpose of making it 
adaptable for milling. 

(See Solidifying point). 

A flaky product made from corn by steaming and 
pressing it by means of rollers. 

A small flat, circular or square, piece of very thin 
glass used for covering microscopic objects. 

Potassium bitartrate; frequently used in baking 
powders. 

The woody frame-work of all vegetable organisms. 
(See cellulose.) 

(See Epidermis). 

Solutions of acids or alkalis of 1/10 of the strength 
of normal solutions. (See normal solutions.) 

A gum-like substance produced from starch by 
certain chemical processes; also known as British gum. 

A fermentable sugar naturally occuring in various 
fruits; can also be made from starch. (See glucose.) 

An enzym of malt which has the property of con- 
verting starch into dextrine and maltose. (See enzyme.) 

The numerical indication of the capability of malt 
or malt products to convert starch into sugar; usually 
expressed as degrees Lintner. (See Diastase.) 

In chemistry any substance which cannot be 
decomposed. 

(See 'Germ.) 

The inner layer of the skin of the wheat berry, be- 
tween epicarp and testa. 



Endosperm 



Enzyme 



Epicarp 



Epidermis 



Ferment 



Fermentation 



The inner part of the wheat berry, containing 
starch cells and gluten. 

An unorganized ferment of animal or vegetable 
origin, e. g. pepsin (from the animal stomach) diastase 
of malt, etc. Enzymes have, even in small quantities, 
the power to convert or transform large quantities of 
complex substances into simpler ones. 

The middle layer of the skin of the wheat berry, 
immediately underneath the epidermis. 

The outer layer of the skin of the wheat berry; 
also called cuticle. 

A substance, organized or unorganized, which is 
capable of producing fermentation. (See yeast.) 



A chemical decomposition of an organic compound, 
due to living organisms, or rather to their secretions 
(enzymes). 

Fermenting period The time of fermentation in which a flour will 

of flour give the best results. Since this is dependent upon 

various conditions, among which is the actual character 

of the flour, so different flours require different periods 

of fermentation. 

Flakes (See Corn Flakes). 

Flavor A characteristic property of bread comprising 

taste and odor. 

Fuel Value When used as a measure of food value, it means 

the heat that can be generated by the digestible part 
of the respective food. It is expressed either in British 
Thermal units or Calories. 

Gelatinizing of The formation of a jelly-like mass or paste from 

starch moistened starch by the effect of heat. 

Germ Or embryo; that part of a seed from which the 

new plant develops. 

Gliadin That portion of the gluten which is the cause of 

its elasticity. 

Glucose A sugar made from starch by certain technical 

methods; is identical with dextrose. 

Gluten In wheat or flour it is that portion of the protein 

which gives elasticity to the dough in bread making. 

Gluten, Dry The dry substance obtained by drying the wet 

gluten. (See wet gluten.) 



146 



Gluten, Wet 



Glutenia 



Grading 



Graham Flour 



The residue obtained by washing a weighed quant- 
ity of flour made into a dough under a stream of water, 
until all starch is removed. 

That part of the gluten which causes its strength. 

The process of separating the middlings obtained 
from wheat into different fractions according to their 
sizes which is accomplished by means of sifters or 
reels. 

An unbolted grade of flour containing all the bran, 
(similar to whole wheat flour) or a regular flour to 
which bran has been added. 



Gypsum 



Calcium sulphate or, if calcined, Plaster of Paris; 
formerly sometimes used as adulterant in flour. Very 
valuable for improving the quality of the water used 
for doughing. 

Hardness of water A term indicating the fact that water contains 
calcium and magnesium salts. (Lime and Magnesia.) 
Permanent hardness is caused by the sulphates, tem- 
porary hardness by the carbonates of these two sub- 
stances. 



Humidity 



The water vapor or moisture contained in air. 



Humidity, relative The amount of moisture in air as compared with 
the amount of vapor that air at the same temperature, 
would contain if saturated. 

Hydrometer An instrument for the determination either of the 

specific gravity of liquids, or, if a percentage hydrom- 
eter, of the percentage strength of solutions. 

Hygrometer An instrument for determining the humidity of air 

(also called psychrometer). 

Indicator In chemistry substances which by a change in 

color indicate the presence of certain substances (acids, 
alkalis) or the end-point of a chemical process. The 
more common indicators are litmus (see litmus), 
methyl-orange, phenolphtalein, etc. 

Infection The presence in a material of micro-organisms 

which are foreign to the respective material. 

Invertase An enzyme associated with yeast and capable of 

inverting cane sugar into invert sugar. 

Invert Sugar Is a mixture of dextrose and levulose. 

Kilowatt A measure of electric power; it is equal to one 

thousand watts. (See watts.) 



Kilowatt hour One thousand watts per hour. 

Lactometer A hydrometer for determining the specific gravity 

of milk. 

Lactose Principal sugar contained in milk. 

Levulose A sugar occuring naturally in many fruits. 

Litmus The coloring matter obtained from various species 

of lichens. In acid solutions litmus has a red color, in 
alkaline solutions it turns to blue. Used to detect acid 
or alkali in solutions. 

Litmus paper Either blue or red, prepared by treating paper 

with either a blue or red extract of litmus. 

Malt Germinated and dried barley. 

Maltase Maltase is an enzyme of the yeast that is able to 

convert maltose into dextrose. (See enzyme.) 

Malt extract A thick syrup-like liquid representing the concen- 

trated extract obtained from malt by mashing the 
same in a ground condition with water at certain tem- 
peratures, straining off the resulting liquid (wort) and 
evaporating the greater part of the water. 

Maltose A sugar obtained from starch by the action of 

diastase. 

Melting Point That temperature at which a solid substance 

changes into a liquid. It is identical with solidifying 
point. 

Middlings The coarse particles of the endosperm of wheat 

obtained by the wheat passing through the break rolls 
of the mill. 

Milk Solids Total solid matter contained in milk. 

Milk Sugar (See Lactose). 

Moisture Water contained in or held by an apparently dry 

substance. (See also Humidity.) 

Molecule A combination or group of atoms which is char- 

acteristic for any substance. 

Nitrogenous Organic substances containing nitrogen in combi- 

matter nation, such as the proteins, etc. 

Normal acid A solution of acid, containing in 1000 cc. the 
equivalent weight of the acid in grams (Normal sul- 
phuric acid contains 49 grs. of chemically pure sul- 
phuric acid in 1 liter). 



148 



Normal alkali 

Objective 
Ocular 

Ohm 

Ohm's Law 



Organic 
substances 



Patent Flour 



Patent Flour, 
long 

Patent Flour, 
short 

Pepsin 



Peptase 



Permanent 
hardness 

Phosphates, acid 



Potash, caustic 



Protein 



A solution of alkali (generally caustic potash or 
caustic soda) containing in 1000 cc. the equivalent 
weight of the alkali in grams. (Normal caustic soda 
contains 40 grs. of pure sodium hydroxide in 1 liter.) 

A combination of lenses; in the compound micros- 
cope at the end nearest to the object, respectively to 
the slide. 

(Also called eye-piece). A combination of lenses; 
in the compound microscope at the end nearest to the 
eye. 

The unit of electric resistance. 

The expression of the fact that an electric current 
in a circuit is in direct proportion to the electric pres- 
sure (voltage) and in inverse proportion to the resist- 
ance of the circuit. 

All compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxy- 
gen ,etc. Frequently derived from or related to or- 
ganisms. 

The flour made from the best fraction of the mid- 
dlings selected and separated from the total of the 
middlings by means of sieves, sifters or reels. 

A patent flour comprising a relatively high per- 
centage of the middling (80% and more). 

A patent flour comprising the smallest percentage 
of the middlings (less than 80 and as low as 65%). 

An enzyme of animal origin which has the power 
of converting insoluble albuminoids into simpler and 
readily soluble ones. (See proteolytic enzyme and pep- 
tase.) 

An enzyme of vegetable origin contained chiefly 
in malt or malted cereals, which has in general an ef- 
fect similar to that of pepsin. 

(See Hardness). 



Acid potassium phosphate as well as acid calcium 
phosphate are some of the ingredients of some baking 
powders. 

A compound of the elements of potassium and oxy- 
gen; in form of its salts important as plant food. 

Important nitrogenous, animal and vegetable com- 
pounds of great chemical complexity. 



149 



Proteolytic 
Enzymes 

Protoplasm 
Pyrometer 
Red Dog 

Reduction rolls 

Rope or ropiness 
Saccharometer 

Salt 

Salt, common 
Scalping 

Scourer 

Separator 

Slide 

Soda, baking 
Soda, caustic 

Soda, common or 
washing 

Solidifying point 
Straight flour 



Enzymes which have the power of converting 
complex proteins into simpler ones. 

The slimy, homogenous or granular semi-fluid por- 
tion of the contents of an animal or vegetable cell. 

An instrument employed for measuring a high tem- 
perature such as that of a baking oven or a furnace. 

Is essentially the bran removed in fairly small 
particles together with a very small percentage of en- 
dosperm particles in form of dust. 

The smooth rolls in a mill by means of which the 
middlings are gradually reduced to flour. 

An infection in bread caused by certain bacteria. 

A percentage hydrometer indicating the percents 
of sugar in a sugar solution. 

In chemistry any compound of a metal and an 
acid. 

A more or less pure grade of sodium chloride. 

The process of removing the particles of epidermis 
and epicarp, endocarp and spermoderm (bran) loosened 
by the effect of the rollers in the mill. 

A machine employed in milling for the purpose of 
removing particles of dirt and dust clinging or adher- 
ing rather persistently to the wheat berry. 

A machine used for removing from wheat foreign 
loosened particles, such as oats, barley, cockle grains, 
also strings, straws, etc. 

A flat thin, generally rectangular strip of glass, 
about 1x3 in., upon which the object is placed for mi- 
croscopic examination. 

Sodium bicarbonate. (See bicarbonate.) 

A compound also known as Sodium hydroxide, and 
composed of sodium, oxygen and hydrogen. 

Sodium carbonate of technical purity. Differs 
from baking soda by its lower percentage of carbonic 
acid contained therein. 

The temperature at which by abstraction of heat, 
a substance changes from the liquid to solid state. 
Also called congealing point or freezing point. 

A flour milled from the entire contents of the en- 
dosperm available for milling, excluding only the bran 
(about 3 to 5%). 



Sugars Sweet compounds chiefly of vegetable origin, be- 

longing to the group of carbohydrates. 

(See Conditioning). 

(See hardness of water). 

A layer in the wheat berry below the epidermis 
and pericarp, consisting of two separate strata and en- 
veloping the endosperm proper. It contains the color- 
ing matter of the wheat. 

Texture of bread The sponge-like appearance of the surface of cut 

bread with reference to the larger or smaller cavities. 
The unit of electric pressure or potential. 



Tempering 

Temporary 
Hardness 

Testa 



Volt 
Watt 

Whole wheat 
flour 

Yeast 



The electric unit for work, equals the product of 
ampere X volt. 

A flour milled from wheat without removing the 
bran. (See Graham Flour.) 

A microscopic plant belonging to the class of 
fungi, that possesses the property of causing fermen- 
tation. 

Yeast, compressed Culture yeast of which a great part of the water 
has been removed by pressure, hence of semi-dry 
condition. 



Yeast, pure 
culture 

Yeast food 



Zymase 



Yeast propagated under steril conditions from 
selected single cells. 

Any material which is absorbed and partly or fully 
assimilated by yeast during the life and propagation. 

An enzyme of yeast which has the property of 
splitting up certain sugars into carbonic acid and al- 
cohol. (See enzyme and fermentation.) 



Plates 



For further explanation of the illustrations shown on the 
following plates, reference should be made to the respective 
subjects in the text of the book. 



153 



Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 



PLATE I. 



MICROSCOPE AND ACCESSORIES. 




Compound Microscope. 





Hound Cover Glass. Square Cover Glass 

155 



Petri Dish. 



Sicbel's Manual and Record Bcok. 



PLATE II. 



WHEAT. 





Wheat Berry. 
(Magn.) 




d 



Transverse Section of Wheat (Magn. 200 x) 

a, Epidermis; b, Epicarp; c, Cross cells; d, Tube cells; e, Outer layer of 
spermoderm; f, Inner layer of spermoderm; g, Aleurone cells; h, Endosperm with 
starch cells. 



157 



Siebel's Manual and Record Beck. 



plate III. 

WHEAT. 







I 







Longitudinal Section of Wheat Berry. 
a — b, Epidermis and Epicarp ; c, Cross cells; d, Tube cells; e — f, Spermoderm 
(testa); g, Aleurone cells; h, Endosperm, starch cells; 1, Endosperm, empty cells; 
p, Plumula; r. Radicle, sc, Scutellum ; z, Absorptive epithelium; B, beard or hair; 
G, Germ or Embryo. 

159 



Biebel'a Manual and Record Bool 



PLATE IV. 



STARCHES. 




L Q^J 



Q> 






\$ @ 



9 



8b \ 

Wheat Starch. 



■Si^O * 



& 0-/B 






Rye Starch. 



(WO 



& 



(# 




<Q 



Ccrn Starch. 



Barley Starch. 




*<3 $ © 



Rice Starch. 




Potato Starch. 



161 



Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 



PLATE V. 



MOULDS. 




Eotrytis Cinerea. 



Cidium Lactis. 




Mucor Racemosus. 






m 



2 /J- 



/ 



Mucor Circinelloides. 



1G3 



Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 



PLATE VI. 



YEAST. 




Compressed Yeast (Magn. 1000 X). 




Yeast Cells (Magn. 2500 X). 



Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 



Sorcma Maximo '+r° 
{offer Lmdnor) 



! i 






Bacterium Aceti 4 ^r 
(after Pasteur) 



PLATE VII. 
BACTERIA. 




Ped Acid/ Lactic/ ("> "f-") 
(after Lindner) 




Lactic Ferment 4J r 
(after Pasteur) 



' "f^^f 


<s * 


.pr 


J k. 


1 ^***° ■ * 




tT- '. 


>s 





Viscous ferment *-— 
(utter Pasteur) 






_ / , / 






Bod. Locus W 




Bacterium Butyncum -*£° Boc SubtdiS '-f 7 



Bac Ulna *? 




B Leptothrix 4 -f-° 



Spirillum Tenue "*/' 
167 



*s 


/"N 


V 


|i 


i, ) 


vA 



Spirillum Undula iSP 



Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 



PLATE VIII. 
PURE YEAST CULTURE ACCESSORIES. 



Drop Culture Slide. 




Pasteur Flask. 




Slide with Moist Chamber. 



109 



Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 



PLATE IX. 



PURE YEAST APPARATUS. 




171 



Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 

PLATE X. 

MENSURATION. 






3^1. ^nare-. ^cj f 2_'3U<.vGcvnc)(Ce- 3^.3. T^o^Ce/. 



^ 


*V_ 


^ 




Co ^ tioCviftOn. ^0.5 S^nic^i*' 1 '' Ju.^wt^- ^V^ C' l ' lc ^ / « / '- 



/! 


/ 


^> 







3^7. C^-e/. St^. Hcc^a-n^vJ^T^wsm. ^.^o^^W^ri^ 






3^10 (%M*v S&cj.'i^. QyWu> S^W-Cow 



-«/. 






Sia,13 C ?r'u-4t-iw.c|^oia^. < {?-i l y')^:5 t »-Pi.C-l-^. ^^S .^•i^^k^.C. 



General Index. 



A. Page 

A r 123 

Ali. ion of flour 70 

i. cased by (lakes 07 

in' lease. | by storing is 

Absorjil inn system 123 

Accessories, m i c rosmpical 155 

pure yeast culture 169 

Acel ie acid no 

.acid bacteria (pi.) 167 

fermental ion S>1 

fermentation, flavor of 51 

Acid 107 

acetic 110 

amino- L13 

butyric 110 

carbonic 103, 109 

fermental ion L16 

hydrochloric 107 

Acidity of flour 72 

Acid, lactic 110 

in beer L10 

in bread 50 

in rye bread 110 

in sour milk 110 

liquid carbonic 122 

nitric 107 

palmitic 110 

salt L08 

stearic 110 

sulphuric 107 

tartaric 110 

Acids, organic 110 

Action of diastase in bread mak- 
ing 40 

Action of peptase on strong flours 40 

A 'I in -ion 99 

Adulteration of compressed yeast 34 

of milk 44 

of milk sugar 29 

Adulterations in flour 66 

Affinity 105 

Agar-agar 118 

gal ion, state of 99 

Air 108 

dry 52 

sure 100 

saturated 52, L03 

Albumen H2 

Albuminoids 112 

Alcohol 109 

amyl- L10 

ethyl- 109 

fusel- L09 

grain- L09 



Page 

methyl- 109 

wood- 109 

formed from sugar... 25, 50, 109 

Alcoholic fermentation 50, 116 

Alcoholometer 100 

Aleurone cells ■), L15 

Alkali 107 

Alkaline water 23, 24, 108 

Alternating current L28 

Amide 113 

Amino-acids 113 

A m mon ia, anhydrous L23 

liquid 122 

Ammonium salts a yea I food . . . 38 

Amount of flakes to be used 67 

Amount of refrigeration 123 

Of Salt to be used 30 

Ampere 126 

Amyl-alcohol 110 

Analysis, average — of different 
grades of hard Spring wheat 

Hour 16 

of commercial feeds 11 

compressed yeast 34 

condensed milk 43 

flour (iS 

methods for 70 

report on 69 

technical 68 

value of 68 

fresh milk 41 

malt exi ract 39 

milk powder 44 

salt 30 

typical wai ers 24 

various milks 45 

waters 24 

Anhydrous ammonia 122 

sugar 27 

ferment ability of 27 

manufael are of 27 

Animal fats and oils 35, 111 

Apparatus, pure yeast.. 120, 121, 171 

Appearance of loaf 62 

Appendix 137 

A rea of circle 1 33 

A rmature 127 

Ash, determinat ion of 70 

Ash in first clear flour 15 

in patent flour 15 

in rye flour 15 

in straight flour L5 

relation; to percentage of Hour 10 

Aspergillus 117, L63 

175 



Assimilation of yeast food 37 

Atmosphere 100 

Atmospheric pressure 100 

Atom 104 

Atomicity 106 

Atomic weight 106 

Attraction, chemical 105 

molar 99 

Average analysis of different 
grades of hard Spring 

wheat flour 16 

composition of wheat 5 

B. 

Bacilli 118 

Bacteria 118, 167 

aeetiei 167 

butyricum 167 

lactic acid 110 

lactis 167 

subtilis 167 

Bakes made from different frac- 
tions of flour 65 

Bakeshop calculations 129 

records 88 

Baking 58 

loss of water in 59 

materials 12 

powder 110 

proper humidity for 53 

temperature for 59 

time for 59 

Baking technology 46 

test 73 

method of 74 

standard pans for 74 

water for 108 

Barley 11 

germinating of 38 

kiln-drying of 38 

starch 161 

steeping of 38 

Barm yeast 32 

infection of 33 

preparation of 32 

Barometer 100 

Bars 85 

Bases 107 

Batteries, electric 128 

Batter sponge 47 

Baume degrees and spec, gravity 139 

Bench record 93 

Beneficial effect of storing of flour, 17 

Beet sugar 25 

Bicarbonates in water 23 

Biological purity of water 22 

Bivalent 106 

Blastomycetes 117 

Bleaching effect of salt 30 

of storing 17 

Bleaching of flour 10, 20 

by chlorine 20 



Page 

by nitrogen-oxide 20 

detection of 22 

effect on gluten 21 

effect on keeping qualities. . 21 

effect on new flour 21 

general method for 20 

objection to 21 

Blending, improving of color by. 19 

kinds of flour used for 19 

mechanical manipulation of. 20 

of flour 19 

of good and poor flour 19 

of hard Winter and hard 

Spring wheat flour 12 

reasons for 19 

regulated by analysis 19 

of wheat 6 

insuring uniform quality 6 

Boiler pressure 102 

Boiling 102 

point 102 

insuring uniform quality 6 

temperature of water 101 

effect of pressure on 102 

latent heat of 102 

Bolted wheat meal 15 

Bones, ground, for feed 11 

Bran 4, 10 

affected by tempering 7 

particles affecting color of 

flour 20 

Bread formula 79 

example for using 77 

flavor of 62 

holes in 62 

causes of holes in 63 

improvers 37 

lactic acid in 50 

making, action of diastase in 40 
hard Winter and hard 
Spring wheat flours for. 12 

ropiness of 51, 116 

ropy 51 

scoring of 61 

Break rolls . 8 

Brewers grains 11 

British thermal unit 101 

Brown sugar 26 

Buckwheat 11 

Budding 116 

Butter 35 

composition of 36 

renovated 36 

U. S. Standard for 36 

Butyric acid 110 

acid bacteria 167 

fermentation 51 

C. 

Cake baking, cane sugar for 26 

Cake formulas 79 

how to use 77 



176 



Page 

Cakes, counter mixed 81 

fruit S4 

layer 83 

pound 84 

small fancy mixed 86 

sponge 82 

sugar 87 

Calcium salts in water 108 

sulphate in water 23, L08 

Cane sugar 25 

fermentability of 26 

for cake baking 26 

inversion of 26 

raw 26 

Caramel , 112 

Carbohydrates 25, 111 

Carbon dioxide 103 

Carbonic acid 25, 103, 109, 122 

formed from sugar 25, 109 

liquid 122 

Casein in milk 41 

Cattle feed 10 

Causes of holes in bread 63 

Caustic soda 107 

Cell 115 

Cells, aleurone 4, 115 

cross 115 

starch 115 

tube 115 

Cellulose 4, 111 

in wheat 4 

membrane 116 

Cell wall 115, 116 

Celsius thermometer 101 

Centigrade thermometer 101 

Cereals, microscopic examination 

of 114 

Cereals used for milling 3 

Characteristics of wheat 3 

Chemical attraction 105 

change 103 

formula 105 

purity of natural water 22 

symbols A 05 

Chemistry 103 

inorganic 106 

organic 109 

Chicken feed 10 

Chlorides 108 

Chlorine used for bleaching 20 

Circle 133, 173 

area of 133 

circumference of 133 

diameter of 133 

radius of 133 

Circumference of circle 133 

Classification of wheat 5 

Cleaning of wheat . 7 

Clear flour 9, 14, 16 

percentage of 16 

Climatic conditions affecting com- 
position of flour 13 



Page 

Coagulation of protein 112 

Cocci 118 

Cohesion 99 

Coils, refrigerating 123 

Color and percentage of flour... 10 

Color, effect of sponge on 47 

effect of sour dough on 49 

Coloring matter in milk 44 

in wheat 4 

Color of bread affected by malt 

extract 41 

affected by water 22 

of compressed yeast 34 

' ' corn sugar 27 

' ' crumb in scoring 62 

' ' Durum wheat flour 13 

" flour affected by bran. ... 20 
" flour affected by crease 

dirt 20 

' ' flour improved by bleach- 
ing 19 

' ' flour, determination of . . . 70 

Combustion 108 

Commercial feeds, analysis of... 11 
Comparison of Baume degrees 

and sp. gr 139 

of thermometer scales 141 

of U. S. and metric units... 138 

Composition of butter 36 

of compressed yeast 34 

of corn sugar 28 

of flour 13 

affected by climatic con- 
ditions 13 

affected by seasonal 

changes 14 

of patent flours from hard 
Spring, hard Winter and 

soft Winter wheat 14 

of syrup 27 

of wheat 4, 5 

Compound, chemical 104 

fat 36 

discount 131 

machines 128 

microscope 114, 155 

Compressed yeast 32, 33, 165 

adulterations in 34 

analysis of 34 

color of 34 

composition of 34 

consistency of 34 

effect of starch in 34 

manufacture of 33 

moisture in 34 

starch in 34 

Compression system 123 

Compressor 123 

Contaminated water 23 

Concentrated milk 43 

skimmed milk 43 

Condensation of vapors 102 

177 



Page 

Condensed milk 42 

skimmed milk 43 

sweetened milk 43 

sweetened skimmed milk ... 43 

milk, analysis of 43 

Condensor 123 

Conditioning of wheat 7 

Conductor, electric . 125 

Cone 135, 173 

Confectioners sugar 112 

Connection, multiple 126 

parallel 127 

series 126 

shunt 127 

resistance of parallel 127 

of series 126 

of shunt 127 

Consistency of compressed yeast 34 

Construction of microscope 114 

Contraction of bodies 100 

Control of fermentation 48 

of humidity 54 

Cooling, effect of — on dough .... 57 

Corn flakes . , 67 

flour 66 

mash 33 

starch 66, 161 

sugar . 27 

color of 27 

composition of 28 

granulated 27 

in lumps 27 

powdered 27 

sweetness of 28 

Cost of materials 129 

Cotton filter 122 

Cotton seed meal 11, 66 

oil in oleomargarine 35 

Counter mixed cakes 81 

Coverglass 121, 155 

Cream of tartar 110 

Crease dirt affecting color of flour 20 

Cross-cells 115 

Crude fibre in feed 10 

Cube 134, 173 

Culture, accessories for pure 

yeast 167 

media 118, 120 

pure 120 

pure yeast 120 

yeast 117 

Current, alternating 128 

direct 128 

electric 125 

Crust, effect of milk on 46 

Cuticle 4 

Cutting over of dough 55 

Cycle 128 

Cylinder 135, 173 

Cytase 113 

in malt 38 

effect of 38 



D. Page 

Definitions of technical terms ..143 

Degree Baume and spec, gr 139 

of fineness of flour 64 

affecting composition and 

quality 64 

of humidity 103, 142 

Detection of bleaching of flour . . 22 
of poorer grades of flour ... 17 

Determination of ash V0 

of color 70 

of moisture 70 

Development of gluten by peptase 40 

Dextrine 27, 111, 112 

unfermentable 27 

Dextrose 27, 112 

fermentability of 112 

Diameter of circle 133 

Diastase 40, 112, 113 

action of 40, 67 

in yeast 31 

Diastatic enzyme 113 

Diastatic power of malt ex- 
tract 39, 67 

Dictionary of technical terms... 143 

Differences in wheat 3 

Different fractions separated 

from flour . 65 

bakes made from 65 

grades of hard Spring wheat 

flour, analysis of 16 

layers in wheatberry 3 

sources of salt 29 

Direct current 128 

Dirt affecting color of flour 20 

Discount, calculating of 131 

compound 131 

Distillation 108 

Dividing 55 

machines 55 

Dough, control of fermentation of 48 

cutting over of 55 

effect of sour — on color and 

flavor 49 

effect of sponge — on flavor. . 48 
effect of straight — on flavor 48 

encrusting of 53 

infection in sour 49 

making of 46 

punching of 55 

sour 49 

sponge 46, 47 

straight 46, 48 

water required for 129 

Doughing methods 46 

room record 91 

Dried milk 44 

skimmed milk 44 

Drinking water for baking 22 

Drop culture slide 169 

Dry and wet bulb hygrometer . . 52 

gluten 71 

Drying of barley 38 

178 



Page 

Dry yeast 32 

infection in 33 

preparation of 33 

Durum wheat 6 

gluten in 6 

flour 12, 13 

color of 13 

for macearoni 13 

gluten of 13 

mixed with soft Winter 

wheat flour 13 

quality of gluten in ... . 13 

Dynamo 127 

shunt 127 



Effect, beneficial — of storing flour 17 

bleaching — of salt 30 

of storing of flour .... 18 

of bleaching on gluten 21 

on keeping qualities of 

bread 21 

on new flour 21 

of bran on color of flour... 20 

cooling on dough 57 

crease dirt on color of flour 20 

cytase in malt 38 

degree of fineness of flour 64 

invertase in yeast 31 

lactic acid in bread.. 50, 110 
on keeping qualities, of 

bread 110 

low humidity 53 

maltase in yeast 31 

malt extract 41 

mechanical factors in fer- 
mentation 55 

milk on crust of bread.. 46 
milk on flavor of bread. . 45 
oxygen on growth of yeast 32 
peptase on strong flour. . . 40 

pressure on boiling 102 

salt 29 

sour dough on color and 

flavor 49 

sponge on color 47 

on flavor 48 

starch in compressed yeast 34 

steam in oven 60 

storing on gliadin ratio.. 18 

on gluten 17 

straight dough on flavor. 48 

sugar on loaf 25 

tempering on bran 7 

various salts in water. 23, 24 
water on color, flavor, etc. 22 

zymase in yeast 31 

Electric batteries 128 

conductors 125 

current 125 

generator 127 

power 126 



Page 

pressure 125 

Electricity 125 

Electro-magnet 125 

Element 104 

Embryo 4 

Encrusting of dough 53 

Endocarp 4 

Endosperm 4, 115 

Energy 9 

Enzymes 113, 116 

diastatic 113 

in malt 38 

in yeast 31 

proteolytic 113 

Epiearp 4, 114 

Epidermis 4, 114 

Eradication of rope 52 

Esters 110 

Ethyl-alcohol '. 109 

Evaporated milk 43 

skimmed milk 43 

Evaporation of liquids 122 

Examination of cereals, micros- 
copic 114 

of yeast, microscopic 119 

Example for using bread and cake 

formula 77 

Excess of steam in oven 60 

Exchanger 123 

Expansion of bodies 100 

value 72 

valve 123 

F. 

Fahrenheit thermometer 101 

Fat 36, 110, 111 

animal 35 

compounds 36 

flavor of 36 

in feed 10 

in milk 42 

in wheat . 4 

melting point of 36 

rancidity of 36 

vegetable 35 

Feed 10 

analysis of commercial 11 

cattle, hog and horse 10 

chicken 10 

crude fibre in 10 

fat in 10 

ground bones in il 

oil cake 11 

protein in 10 

starch in 10 

Ferment 32, 113 

lactic 165 

viscous 165 

yeast 32 

Fermentability of anhydrous 

sugar 27 

cane sugar 26 



dextrine 27 

malt sugar 28 

Fermentation 49, 109, 116 

acetic 51 

acid 116 

alcoholic 50 

alcohol and carbonic acid 

produced by ...50, 109 

butyric 51 

flavor of acetic 51 

lactic acid 50 

new flour in 55 

period 73 

temperature for lactic acid.. 50 

test . 120 

vinous 116 

viscous 51, 116 

Fermenting power of yeast 120 

room records 92 

Fibre, crude — in feed 10 

Field 127 

Figuring in the bakeshop 129 

Filter, cotton 122 

presses 34 

Filtration of water 23 

Fineness of flour affecting com- 
position and quality 64 

First clear flour, ash in 15 

U. S. Standard for 15 

First patent flour 10, 14 

percentage of 16 

Fission 116, 117 

Flakes 67 

absorption increased by .... 67 

amount of — to be used 67 

and malt extract 67 

corn 67 

diastatic power of malt ex- 
tract and 67 

Flavor of acetic fermentation . . 51 
of bread affected by milk . . 45 

in scoring 62 

of fats and oils 36 

of sour dough bread 49 

of sponge dough bread 4S 

of straight dough bread .... 43 

Flour 12 

action of peptase on strong. 40 

adulterations in 66 

analysis of 68 

methods for 70 

report on 69 

technical 68 

value of 68 

ash in first clear 12 

in rye 16 

in patent 15 

in straight 15 

bleaching of 10, 20 

by chlorine 20 

by nitrogen-oxide 20 

general method for .... 20 



Page 

blending of 19 

good and poor 19 

reasons for 19 

regulated by analysis . . 19 

clear 9, 14 

percentage of 16 

composition of 13 

of patent flour 14 

corn 66 

detection of poorer grades of 17 

determination of color 70 

different fractions separated 

from 65 

different grades of 9, 14 

different kinds of 12 

Durum wheat 9, 12 

and soft Winter wheat 

flour mixed 13 

color of 13 

for maccaroni 13 

gluten in 13 

quality of gluten in ... 13 

effect of bleaching on new . . 21 

of bran on color of 20 

of crease dirl} on color of 20 

first patent 10, 14 

granular 12 

hard Spring wheat 12 

gluten in 12 

quality of gluten in .... 12 

hard Winter wheat 12 

gluten in 12 

hard Winter wheat and hard 

Spring wheat, blended 12 

Kansas 12 

gluten in 12 

quality of gluten in ... . 12 

kinds of — to be blended.... 19 

low grade 9, 14 

percentage of 16 

malt 41 

nitrogen in patent 15 

in rye 16 

in straight 15 

patent 8 

potato 66 

red dog 11 

second patent 10, i4 

percentage of 14 

sharp 12 

short and long patent 10 

soft Winter wheat 12, 13 

for pastry 13 

gluten in 13 

quality of gluten in ... 13 

Standard XL S., first clear . . 15 

Graham 16 

patent 15 

rye 16 

straight 15 

whole wheat 15 

storing of 17 



180 



in bags 17 

proper temperature of.. 17 

straight 9 

substitute 66 

uniform granulation of .... 64 

used in sponge 47 

yield of 1 bbl. of 129 

Force " y 

Foreign substances in wheat ... 7 
Formation of alcohol and car- 
bonic acid 25 

Formula, bread and cake 79 

chemical 105 

example for using bread and 

cake 77 

for bars 85 

" bread ™ 

" counter mixed cakes.... 81 

' ' fruit cakes 84 

' ' layer cakes 83 

' ' milk rolls 80 

" pound cakes 84 

' ' small fancy cakes 86 

' ' snaps 85 

' ' sponge goods 82 

" sugar cakes 87. 

" water rolls 80 

Fractions, different — separated 

from flour 65 

different, bakes made from.. 65 

Freezing point of water 101 

Fresh milk 41 

analysis of 41 

Fructose "^8 

Fruit cakes 84 

flavors HO 

Frustum of cone 135, 173 

Functions of yeast 31 

Fusel-alcohol 109 

Fusion, latent heat of 102 

G. 

Gaseous state of aggregation ...99 
Gases, liquefied, for refrigeration 12 

Gelatine n8 

Gelatinizing of starch HI 

Generator 123, 127 

electric "7 

197 

series "■' 

shunt 127 

Germ * 

Germination of barley 38 

Gliadin ......18, 72, 112 

number or ratio 72 

ratio affected by storing ... 18 

Globulines 112 

Glucose 27 

Gluten H2 

affected by bleaching 21 

developed by peptase 40 

dry 71 

in Durum wheat 6 



Page 

in Durum wheat flour 13 

in hard Winter wheat 5 

in hard Winter wheat flour . 12 

in hard Spring wheat 5 

in hard Spring wheat flour . 12 

in Kansas flour 12 

in soft Winter wheat 6 

in soft Winter wheat flour . . 13 

in wheat 4 

in white wheat 4 

quality of 73 

relation of percentage of 

flour to 10 

Glutelins n2 

Glutenin 112 

increased by storing 17 

Glycerine HO 

Good and poor flour blended .... 19 
Governing fermentation by salt. 29 

Graders 8 

Grades of flour 9, 14 

average analysis of different 16 

detection of poorer 17 

Gradual reduction of wheat .... 8 

Graduation of thermometer 101 

Graham flour ia 

Grain alcohol 1°9 

of loaf 62 

Grains, dried brewers H 

Granular flour 12 

Granulated corn sugar 27 

sugar 26 

U. S. Standard 28 

Granulation of flour, uniform ... 64 

Granules, starch 4 

Grape sugar 27, 112 

Gravitation 99 

Gravity, specific 99 

specific, and Baume degrees. 139 

specific, of milk . 41 

of sugar solutions 140 

Ground bones in feed 11 

Growth of yeast 31 

effect of oxygen on .... 32 
mineral salts for 31, 32 

H. 

Hardness of water, permanent . . 108 

temporary 101 

Hard Spring wheat 5 

flour lj 

analysis of 16 

gluten in 12 

quality of gluten in ... 12 

Hard water 23, 24, 108 

Hard Winter wheat 5 

Hard Winter wheat flour 12 

gluten in 5 

and hard Spring wheat flour 

blended 12 

Heat 100 



181 



Page 
Heating substances, heat re- 
quired for 101 

Heat, latent 102 

of fusion 102 

of ice 102 

of melting 102 

of vaporization 102 

leakage j^4 

required for heating sub- 
stances xOl 

specific 10i 

transmission 124 

„ uuit ..'.'.'.'.'. "l01 

Hemisphere l 36j 173 

Holes in bread 62 

caused by improper 

moulding 63 

caused by over-fermen- 
tation 63 

caused by under-fermen- 

tation 63 

Horse and hog feed 10 

How to use malt extract 40 

Humidity 52 , 103 

control of ^4 

degree of 103,' 142 

effect of low 53 

in storing flour 17 

proper, for baking 53 

relative 52 

Hydraulic pressure 100 

Hydrocarbons ' 109 

Hydrochloric acid 107 

Hydrometer 99 

percentage 100 

Hydroxides [ ,107 

Hygrometer g^' 103 

wet and dry bulb 52 

Hygrometry 102 

Hyphae ) 116 

Hyphomyeetes 109 

I. 

Ice, latent heat of 102 

melting point of 101 

Identification of starches 115 

Improper moulding cause of holes 

in bread 63 

Improper proof 57 

Improver, sugar as an 26 

Improving of color by blending . 19 

of water 24 

Impurities in salt 29 

Increase in absorption by flakes. 67 
in absorption by storing ... 18 

in glutenin by storing 17 

Incubator . . 121 

Infection 116 

in Barm yeast 33 

in dry yeast 33 

in sour dough 49 

Inorganic chemistry 106 

182 



Page 

Insulated walls 124 

Interest 131 

Intervals in punching 55 

Inversion of cane sugar 26 

of malt sugar 28 

Invertase 113 

in yeast 31 

action of 31 

Iodine solution m 115 

K. 

Kansas flour 12 

gluten in 12 

quality of gluten in 12 

Keeping quality of bread affect- 
ed by lactic acid. . .110 

Kettle rendered lard 35 

Kiln-drying of barley. 38 

Kinds of flour 12 

for blending 19 

L. 

Laboratory outfit 75 

Lactic acid 110 

affecting keeping quality of 

bread 110 

bacteria 110, 165 

effect of — in bread 50 

fermentation 50 

in beer and sour milk 110 

in rye bread 110 

Lactose 29, 112 

Lard, kettle rendered 35 

leaf 35 

neutral 35 

pure 35 

Latent heat 102 

of boiling 102 

of fusion or melting 102 

of ice 102 

of vaporization 102 

of water 102 

Layer cakes 83 

Layers, different — in a wheatberry 4 

Leaf lard 35 

Leucosin 112 

Levulose 28 

Lines, magnetic 125 

Liquefaction of gases or vapors. 102 
Liquefied gases for refrigeration 122 

Liquid ammonia 122 

carbonic acid 122 

receiver 123 

sulphur-dioxide 122 

Liquids 99 

evaporation of 122 

refrigerating 122 

Litmuspaper 107 

Loaf, appearance of 62 

grain of 62 

imperfect moulding of — caus- 
ing holes o3 



Page 

moulding of 56 

split 58 

proof given to 58 

selling price of 130 

texture of 62 

volume of 62 

weight of 130 

Longitudinal section of wheat- 
berry 159 

Long patent flour 10 

Long sponge 47 

Loss of moisture in baking .... 59 

in storing 18 

Low grade flour 9, 14 

percentage of 16 

Lumps, corn sugar 27 

M. 
Maccaroni, Durum wheat flour 

for 6, IS 

Machines, compound electric. .. .128 

dividing 55 

Magnesium salts in water 108 

Magnet, electro- 125 

natural 125 

permanent 125 

Magnetic lines 125 

Magnetism 125 

Making the dough 46 

Malt 38, 112 

Maltase in yeast 31 

effect of 31 

Malt, cytase in 38 

enzymes in 38 

extract 38, 112 

analysis of 39 

as yeast food 38 

diastatic power of . . .39, 67 
effect of — on color of 

bread 41 

how to use 40 

manufacture of 38 

reduction of sugar and 

yeast by 41 

used together with flakes 67 

flour 41 

manufacture of 38 

Maltose 28, 111, 112 

Malt sprouts 11 

Malt sugar 28, 112 

fermentability of 28 

formation of 28 

inversion of 28 

sweetness of 28 

Manometer 100 

Manufacture of anhydrous sugar 27 

of compressed yeast . 33 

of malt . 3S 

of malt extract 38 

Maple sugar 27 

Marsh gas 109 

Mash, corn 33 



Page- 
Material, cost of 129 

Matter 99 

properties of 99 

Meal, bolted wheat 15 

cotton seed 11, 16 

peanut 66 

soybean 66 

Measures 137 

Mechanical factors affecting fer- 
mentation 55 

Mechanical manipulation in 

blending flour 20 

Mechanical refrigeration 122 

Media, culture 118 

Melting 102 

ice, temperature of 101 

latent heat of 102 

point 102 

of fats 36 

of ice 102 

Mensuration 132, 173 

Metals 106 

Metalloids 106, 107 

Methane 109 

Method of mixing the shortening 37 

of baking test 74 

of panning 55 

Methods of analysis 70 

of making dough 46 

of mechanical refrigeration. 122 

Methyl-alcohol 109 

Metric units compared with U. S. 

units 138 

system 137 

Micron 117 

Micro-organisms 114 

Microscope, compound 114, 155 

construction of 114 

simple 114r 

use of 114 

Microscopic accessories 155 

examination of cereals ....114 

of yeast 119 

Microscopy .' 114 

Middlings 8, 9, 11 

percentage of — in flour 9 

reduction of 8 

rye 11 

Milk 41 

adulteration of 44 

analysis of condensed 43' 

analysis of fresh 41 

analysis of various 45 

casein in 41 

coloring matter in 44 

concentrated 43 

condensed 42 

condensed sweetened 43 

dried 44 

effect on crust of bread .... 46 
effect on flavor of bread . . 45 
evaporated 43' 



183 



Page 

fat 42 

powder 44 

powder, analysis of 44 

preservatives in 44 

rolls 80 

skimmed 42 

skimmed, concentrated 43 

skimmed, condensed 43 

skimmed, condensed, sweet- 
ened 43 

skimmed dried 44 

skimmed evaporated 43 

solids 42 

specific gravity of 41 

sugar 29, 112 

adulteration of 29 

and lactic acid fermen- 
tation 29 

preparation of 29 

sweetness of 29 

use of 29 

watering of 41 

Mill 8 

Milling, cereals used for 3 

object of 4 

of wheat 8 

technology 3 

Mill separator 7 

streams 9 

Mineral salts for growth of 

yeast 31, 32 

Mixed cakes, counter 81 

small fancy 86 

Mixing shortening 37 

Mixture 104 

of Durum wheat flour and 
soft Winter, wheat 

flour 13 

Moist chamber 121, 169 

Moisture and storing of flour . . 17 

determination of 70 

in compressed yeast 34 

loss by storing 18 

Molar attraction 99 

Molasses 27 

Molecular motion 100 

Molecule 99, 104 

Motor, electric 127 

series 127 

shunt 127 

Mould 116, 163 

Moulding, improper — cause of 

holes 63 

Moulding of loaf 56 

Mucor 117, 163 

Multiple connection 126 

Mycellium 117 

N. 

Natural magnet 125 

water 22 

biological purity 22 



Page 

chemical purity 22 

filtration of 23 

organic refuse in 23 

turbidity of 23 

Neutralisation 107 

Neutral lard 35 

New flour affected by bleaching. . 21 

in fermentation 55 

Nitric acid 107 

Nitrogen in patent flour 15 

in rye flour 16 

in straight flour 15 . 

-oxide for bleaching 20 

Nucleus 116 

Nutritive value of sugar 25 

O. 

Oats 10 

Object in milling 4 

Objections to bleaching 21 

Objective 114 

Ocular 114 

Odor caused by ropiness 51 

Offals 10 

Ohm 126 

Ohm's law 126 

Oidium 117, 156 

Oil 36, 110, 111 

animal or vegetable Ill 

cake feed 11 

flavor of 36 

Oleomargarine 35 

cotton seed oil in 35 

Organic acids 110 

chemistry 109 

refuse in water 23 

Origin of sugar 25 

Outfit, laboratory 75 

Oven, pressure of steam in 60 

quick 57 

slow 58 

temperature and proofing . . 57 

use of steam in 59 

Overfermentation causing holes.. 63 

Oxidation 108 

Oxides 107 

of nitrogen 20 

Oxygen, effect of — on growth of 

yeast 32 

P. 

Palmitic acid 110 

Pan for baking test, standard . . 74 

Panning 55 

method of 55 

Parallel connection 127 

resistance of 127 

Paste, starch Ill 

Pasteur flask 121, 159 

Pastry, soft Winter wheat flour 

for 13 

184 



Page 

Patent flour 8, 10, 14 

ash in 15 

composition of 14 

first 10, 14 

long 10 

nitrogen in 15 

second 10 

short 10 

U. S. standards for .... 15 

Peanut meal 66 

Peneillium 117, 156 

Pepsin 113 

Peptase 40, 113 

action of, on strong flours . . 40 
development of gluten by . . 40 

Peptones 113 

Percentage of clear flour 16 

first patent flour 16 

flour in relation to ash, color 

and gluten 10 

low grade flour 16 

middlings in flour 9 

second patent flour i4 

straight grade flour 7 14 

Period of fermentation 73 

Permanent hardness of water. 23, 108 

Permanent magnet 125 

Physical change 103 

Physics .' . .. 99 

Picnometer 99 

Piping required for refrigeration 124 

Point, boiling 102 

of water 102 

freezing — of water 101 

melting 102 

Polygon 133, 173 

Potato flour 66 

starch 66, 159 

Pound cakes 84 

Powder, baking 110 

milk 44 

analysis of 44 

Powdered corn sugar 27 

Power, electric 126 

Precautions to be observed in 

ropiness 52 

Preparation of Barm yeast 32 

of dry yeast 33 

of milk sugar 29 

Preservatives in milk 44 

Pressure, boiler 102 

effect of — on boiling 102 

electric 123 

gauge 100 

hydraulic 100 

of air 100 

of atmosphere .100 

of steam in oven 60 

of water column 100 

Price of loaf 130 

Prism 134, 173 

Prolamins 112 



Page 

Proof -box 56 

closet 56 

given to split loaf 58 

Proofing 55 

improper 57 

relation to oven temperature 57 

time of 57 

Propagation of yeast 117 

Proper humidity for baking .... 53 
Proper temperature for baking . 59 

Proper time for baking 59 

Properties of matter 99 

of wheat 3 

Protease in yeast 31 

Protein 4, 71, 112 

coagulation of 112 

in feed 10 

in wheat 4 

soluble, for growth of yeast 31 

Proteolytic enzyme 113 

Proteoses 113 

Protoplasm 115 

Punching of dough 55 

intervals in 55 

Pure culture 120 

yeast 33 

Pure lard 35 

Pure yeast apparatus. .120, 121, 171 

culture 120 

accessories 167 

Purifiers 8 

Purity of natural water 22 

of salt 29 

Putrefaction 116 

Pyramid 135, 173 

Pyrometer 58, 101 

Q. 

Quality of flour affected by de- 
gree of fineness.... 64 

of gluten 12, 73 

in Durum wheat flour . . 73 
in hard Spring wheat 

flour 12 

in Kansas flour 12 

in soft winter wheat 

flour 13 

Quick oven 57 

R. 

Radius of circle 133 

Rain water 108 

Rancidity due to storing of flour 17 

of fats 37 

Raw cane sugar 25 

Reagents 76 

Reaumur thermometer 101 

Reasons for blending of flour ... 19 

Receiver, liquid 123 

Records for bakeshop 88 

Rectangle 132, 173 

Red dog flour 11 



Page 

Seduction of middlings 8 

of sugar and yeast by malt 

extract 41 

of wheat, gradual 8 

rolls 8 

Eef rigerating coils 123 

liquids 122 

systems 123 

Eef rigeration 122 

by liquefied gases 122 

methods of 122 

piping required . 124 

required 123 

ton of 123 

Eef rigerator 123 

Eef use in water 23 

Eegulation of blending by 

analysis 19 

Eelation of percentage of flour to 

ash, color and gluten 10 
of proofing to oven tempera- 
ture 57 

Eelative humidity 51, 142 

Eenovated butter 36 

Eeport on technical analysis of 

flour . 69 

Eesistanee 126 

of parallel connection 127 

of series connection 126 

of shunt connection 127 

Eice flour 66 

starch 66, 159 

Eight angle 132 

Eolls, break 8 

milk 80 

reduction 8 

water 80 

Eope 51 

spores 51 

Eopiness 51, 116 

eradication of 52 

odor caused by 51 

precautions to be observed. . 52 

Eopy bread 51 

Bounding up 56 

Eust 104 

mould 117 

Eye 114 

bread, lactic acid in 110 

flour, ash in 16 

nitrogen in 16 

U. S. standard 16 

middlings 11 

starch 159 

S. 

Saeeharometer 100 

Saccharomyeetes 117 

Saccharose Ill 

Salt 29, 107 

acid 108 

amount to be used 30 



analysis of 30 

as governor in fermentation 29 

bleaching effect of 30 

different sources of 29 

effect of 29 

impurities in . 29 

in water, effect of.. 23, 24 

purity of 29 

Sarcina 158 

Saturated air 52, 103 

Sauerteig . 49 

Scalpers 8 

Schizomycetes 118 

Scientific data 9S 

Score card 61 

Scoring of bread 61 

Scouring of wheat 7 

second 8 

Screenings 10 

Seasonal changes and composition 

of flour 14 

Second patent flour 10, 14 

percentage of 14 

scouring of wheat 8 

Section of wheat berry, longitud- 
inal 159 

transverse 157 

Selling price of loaf 130 

Separator, mill 7 

warehouse 7 

Series connection 126 

resistance of 126 

generator 127 

motor 127 

Sharp flour 12 

Shortening 35 

method of mixing 37 

Short patent flour 10 

sponge 47 

Shunt connection 127 

resistance of 127 

dynamo 127 

generator 127 

motor 127 

Sifters 8 

Sifting test for granulation 64 

Simple microscope 114 

Skimmed milk 42 

concentrated 43 

condensed 43 

dried 44 

evaporated 43 

Slide 121 

for drop culture 169 

Slow oven 58 

Small fancy mixed cakes 86 

Snaps 85 

Soap 110 

Soda, caustic 107 

Sodium carbonate in water 23 

chloride 107 

in water 23 



Page 

Soft water 23, 24, 108 

Sof t winter wheat 5 

gluten in G 

Soft winter wheat flour 13 

for pastry 13 

gluten in 13 

quality of gluten in. . . . 13 

Solid 99 

Solids in milk 42 

Soluble proteins for growth of 

yeast 31 

Solution 104 

of iodine Ill, 115 

Sour dough 49 

effect of — on color and 

flavor 49 

infection in 49 

Sour milk, lactic acid in 110 

Soybean meal 66 

Specific gravity 99 

compared with Baume 

degrees 139 

of milk 41 

of sugar solutions 140 

heat 101 

weight 99 

Spermoderm 115 

Sphere 136, 161 

Spirillum 158 

Split loaf 58 

proof given to 58 

Sponge 47 

batter 47 

cakes 82 

dough cause of holes 63 

effect of — on color and loaf. 47 

flour used for 47 

long 47 

method 46 

short 47 

Sponging room record 90 

Spores 51, 117 

Sporulation 116, 117 

Square 132, 161 

Stability of flour affected by 

bleaching 21 

Stability test 73 

Starch Ill, 161 

barley 161 

cells 115 

corn .66, 161 

gelatinizing of Ill 

granule 4 

identification of 115 

in compressed yeast . 34 

in feed 10 

paste Ill 

potato 66, 161 

rice 66, 161 

rye 161 

sugar 27, 112 

wheat 161 



Page 

Standard for butter 36 

for flour 15 

pan for baking test 74 

State of aggregation 99 

Steam . . 102 

effect of — in oven 60 

excess of — in oven 60 

pressure in oven 60 

Stearic acid 110 

Steeping of barley 38 

Sterilisation 120 

Stock yeast 32 

Store room records 94 — 97 

Storing of flour 17 

affecting gliadin ratio. . 18 

and moisture 17 

and rancidity 17 

beneficial effect of 17 

bleaching effect of .... 18 

humidity in 17 

in bags 17 

increase in absorption.. 18 
increase in glutenin ... 17 

loss of moisture in 18 

temperature for 17 

Straight dough 48 

control of fermentation 

of 48 

effect on flavor 48 

Straight flour . 9, 14 

ash in 15 

nitrogen in 15 

percentage of 14 

U. S. standard for 15 

Strength of sugar solutions .... 140 
Strong flour affected by peptase. 40 

Structure of wheat berry 4, 114 

Substitutes for flour 66 

Sucrose 25, 111 

Sugar 25, 111 

alcohol and carbonic acid 

formed from 25 

anhydrous 27 

fermentability of 27 

as sweetener and improver.. 25 

beet 25 

brown 25 

cakes 87 

cane 25 

fermentability of 26 

for cake baking 26 

inversion of 26 

raw 25 

confectioners 112 

corn 27 

color of 27 

composition 28 

sweetness 28 

effect on loaf 25 

granulated 26 

U. S. standard for 26 

grape 27, 112 



is 1 ; 



malt 28, 112 

fermentability 28 

formation 28 

inversion 28 

sweetness 28 

maple 27 

nutritive value of 25 

origin of 25 

solution, spec. gr. and 

strength 140 

starch 27, 112 

Sulphur dioxide, liquid 122 

Sulphates 108 

in water . . 23 

Sulphuric acid 107 

Sweetened condensed milk 43 

skimmed milk 43 

Sweetness of corn sugar 28 

of malt sugar 28 

of milk sugur \ 29 

Symbols, chemical 105 

Syrup 27 

composition of 27 

Systems of refrigeration 123 

absorption 123 

compression 123 

T. 

Tartaric acid 110 

Technical analysis of flour 68 

report on 69 

data 9S 

terms, dictionary and defini- 
tions 143 

Technology, baking 46 

milling 3 

Temperature 100 

for baking, proper 59 

for lactic acid fermentation. 50 

for storing flour 17 

of boiling water 101 

of melting ice 101 

of water for mix 130 

Tempering bin 7 

effect on bran 7 

of wheat 7 

Temporary hardness of water. . . 23 

Testa 4 

Texture of loaf 62 

Thermal unit, British 101 

Thermo-couple 101, 125 

Thermometer 101 

Celsius 101 

Centigrade 101 

Fahrenheit 101 

graduation 101 

Reaumur 101 

scales, comparison 141 

Time for baking, proper 59 

of proofing 57 

Ton of refrigeration 123 

Transmission of heat 124 



Page 

Transverse section of wheat 

berry 157 

Triangle 132, 173 

Trivalent 106 

Tube cells 115 

Turbidity of water 23 

U. 

Under-fermentation causing holes 63 
Uniform granulation of flour. ... 64 

sifting test for 64 

quality obtained by blending & 

Unit of heat 101 

Univalent 106 

Use of malt extract 40 

microscope 114 

milk sugar 29 

steam in oven 59 

V. 

Vacuum 102 

Valence 106 

Value, expansion 72 

of analysis 68 

Valve, expansion 123 

Vaporization, latent heat of ....102 

of water 102 

Vapors 102 

condensation or liquefaction. 102 

Varieties of wheat 5 

Varnish 109 

Vegetable fats and oils. 36, 110, 111 

Vinegar 103, 110 

Vinous fermentation 116 

Viscous ferment 167 

fermentation 51, 116 

Volt 126 

Voltage 125 

Volume of loaf 62 

W. 

Walls, insulated 124 

Warehouse separator 7 

Water 22, 108 

alkaline 23, 24, 108 

analysis of 24 

bicarbonates in 24 

boiling point of 102 

calcium salts in 108 

calcium sulphate in 23 

column, pressure of 100 

contaminated 23 

drinking 22 

effects of salt in 23, 24 

effect on bread 22 

filtration of 23 

for baking 22, 108 

for mix, temperature of . . . 130 

freezing point of 101 

hard 23, 24 

improving of 24 

188 



latent heat of vaporization.. 102 

lost in baking 59 

magnesium salts in 108 

natural 22 

organic refuse in 23 

permanent hardness 23 

purity of 22 

rain 108 

required for dough 129 

rolls 80 

sodium carbonate in 23 

sodium chloride in 23 

soft 23, 24, 108 

sulphates in 23 

temporary hardness 23 

turbidity 23 

vapor 103 

Watering of milk 41 

Watt 126 

Weight . 99 

atomic 106 

of loaf 130 

specific 99 

Wet and dry bulb hygrometer ... 52 

Wheat ".3, 4, 114, 157 

berry 157 

different layers in 

A, 114, 157, 159 

longitudinal section ....159 

transverse section 157 

blending of 6 

cellulose in 4 

characteristics of 3 

classification of 5 

cleaning of 7 

coloring matter in 4 

composition of 4, 5 

conditioning of 7 

differences in 3 

Durum 6 

fat in 4 

flour 12, 13 

Durum 13 

hard spring 12 

hard winter 12 

soft winter 12 

foreign substances In 7 

gluten in 4 

gradual reduction of . 8 

hard spring 5 

hard winter 5 

meal, bolted 15 

milling of 8 

properties of 3 

protein in 4 

scouring of 7 

second scouring of . 8 

soft winter 5 

starch 161 

structure of 4, 114 



Page 

tempering of 7 

varieties of 5 

White wheat 6 

gluten in 6 

Wild yeast 118 

Wood-alcohol 109 

Wort 33, 120 

Y. 

Yeast 30, 117, 165 

Barm 32 

compressed 32, 33, 165 

adulteration in 34 

analysis of 34 

color 34 

composition 34 

consistency 34 

manufacture of 33 

moisture in 34 

starch in 34 

culture 117 

diastase in 31 

dry 32 

enzymes in 31 

effect of 31 

effect of oxygen on growth of 31 

ferment 32 

fermenting power 120 

food 37 

ammonium salts in 38 

assimilation of 37 

malt extract as 38 

functions of 31 

growth of 31 

infection in barm 33 

in dry 33 

invertase in 31 

maltase in 31 

microscopic examination ...119 
mineral salts for growth.. 31, 32 

preparation of barm 32 

of dry 33 

propagation 117 

protease 31 

pure culture 33 

pure — culture . 33, 120 

accessories 169 

apparatus 120, 121, 171 

soluble protein for growth.. 3], 

Yeast, stock 32 

various kinds 32 

wild ..118 

zymase in 31 

Yield in milling 8 

of 1 bbl. of flour 129 

Z. 

Zymase 31, 113 

in yeast 31 

effect of 31 



189 



Preface to Advertisements. 



"With the object of making this Manual all that its name 
implies, a ready reference book, in all matters of prime 
interest to the baker and miller, it has been deemed desirable 
and of mutual advantage to devote a limited space to advertise- 
ments of such selected firms regarding whose responsibility, 
prominence, and honest dealings we had fully satisfied our- 
selves. 

In the letting of contracts for buildings, machinery, sup- 
plies, etc., we respectfully refer you to the double index which 
has been devised to admit of immediate reference ; and we must 
not omit to say that only through this co-operation of the firms 
as represented in this advertising section and who have thereby 
indicated their interest in the educational and scientific devel- 
opment of the Baking and Milling Industries, was it made pos- 
sible in view of the extraordinary high prices of materials, 
labor, etc., to place this Manual on the market at the low price 
quoted. 



190 



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11111111111111111111111111? 




Making Sure of Deliveries 



Wise old Benjamin Franklin said if you wanted a thing 
done well to do it yourself. 

That's precisely the reason why we handle the delivery cf 

FLEISCHMANN'S YEAST 

through our own organization. We couldn't know exactly 
how and just when you got your yeast unless we delivered 
it direct to you. 

So we make sure that our delivery service is well done by 
"doing it ourselves ". 

THE FLEISCHMANN CO. 



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Of Interest 
To Bakers 



Superla Oils 

Will Lubricate Your 
Machinery Perfectly 

The various Superla brands of oils re- 
present the highest development in lubricants 
for special purposes. 

Their adoption by leading bakers every- 
where, is proof of their power-saving qualities. 

There is a Superla brand for every 
need. 

Superla Cylinder Oil 

Superla Machine Oil 
Superla Dynamo Oil 
Superla Engine Oil 

^Okmng For Your Truck 

The product of a half century of experience in the manufact- 
ure of lubricating oils. Polarine maintains the correct lubricating 
body at any motor speed or temperature. 

Red CrOWn Gasoline -the efficient motor fuel- 
gives power when needed, speed when desired. 

USE THEM IN YOUR TRUCK 



I STANDARD OIL COMPANY 

I INDIANA 

I CHICAGO U. S. A. 

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III 



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A letter from the Mansfield Bakery of the New England Baking Co. 

MANSFIELD BAKING COMPANY I 

| 64-82 Napier Street 1 

I Dicks, Slosson, Inc., Springfield, Mass. March 8, 1917. 

I 302 Broadway, = 

1 New York, N. Y. | 

1 Attention of J. S. Slosson. 1 

| Gentlemen: — Replying to your letter of March 3rd, we are pleased to give | 

I you a recommendation regarding your Humidifiers. Since the installation of these | 

= two machines in our Dough-Room, we are pleased to state that our Bread has = 

1 been improved. Yours very truly, MANSFIELD BAKERY, I 

| I. T. McGregor, Manager. | 

Further reply to our request to publish the above §.. 

| Dicks, Slosson, Inc., March 10, 1917. 1 

I New York, N. Y. I 

Gentlemen: — Replying to your letter of March 9th, will state that you have | 

| our full permission to use our previous letter for advertising purposes, as we | 

= are very much pleased with your Humidifiers. f 

Very truly yours, MANSFIELD BAKERY, 1 

I B. M. T. per I. T. McGregor, Manager. § 

This is but one of over 95 Bakeries equipped hi the last fetu months. 

Why don'' t YOU improve your bread also and save money as well? = 

NORMALAIR HUMIDIFIERS 

I Catalogue B and prices. 1 

1 Used by Siebel Institute of Technology. § 

I DICKS, SLOSSON CO., Inc., Northern Agents, 302 Broadway NEW YORK, N.Y. \ 

1 Factory — NORMALAIR COMPANY, Winston-Salem, N. C. 

r. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 m 1 1 1 1 m 1 1 1 m 1 j 1 1 1 1 11 1 u 1 1 1 1 1 j 1 1 1 1 1 u 11 f ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 iimi ui iiiiiiiii»iiiiiiiiiiiii.*iiiiiiiriiiiiiijiiiiiii.^ 

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SUPERIORITY 

PRACTICALLY every successful baker agrees that MALT I 

1 EXTRACT used in bread making produces a loaf of superior \ 

1 quality in every way — superior in color, texture, crust, etc. f 

OP. MALT EXTRACT is universally regarded as the best I 

I MALT EXTRACT made. Use it in bread making and get | 

1 maximum results. 1 

1 Our Booklet Will Be Sent Gratis on Request. | 

Malt-Diastase Company 

j 79 WALL STREET NEW YORK, N. Y. | 

i Laboratories, Brooklyn, N. Y. | 

Warehouses: — Chicago; Boston; Philadelphia; Portland, \ 

Oregon ; Louisville, Ky. ; Toronto, Canada. | 

^l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 > 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 < 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 c 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ i^ 

IV 




FUEL ECONOMY 



EASY TO REGULATE 



German- American 
Ovens 

Need no introduction to the baking industry for they have led the field for 
twenty-five years. 

They are built from the very best material and every Oven is in- 
spected and tested before it leaves our factory. Our Slogan, "THE CUS- 
TOMER TAKES NO CHANCES." The German-American Oven is 
absolutely steam tight, therefore adapted for all classes of steam goods, 
such as French Bread, Water Rolls, etc. 

AVrite for our new illustrated catalogue. 



HUBBARD OVEN CO. 



1134 Belden Avenue 
Chicago, 111. 



260 West Broadway 
New York, N. Y. 



Scarritt Arcade 
Kansas City, Mo. 



immimmimmimillimilllimllllimmmmillllllllllllllmlllimilimillllllllllimilimillimiimilllllllllliuillli 



In the Bayers' Supply business over twenty -five years 



AD. SEIDEL & SONS 



MANUFACTURERS AND JOBBERS IN 
HIGHEST QUALITY 



Bakery Supplies of All Kinds 

1245-1257 GARFIELD AVE. 
CHICAGO, ILL. 

The name "SEIDEL" is a symbol of QUALITY, 
SERVICE and SATISFACTION 



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I A Triumph Sanitary Combination I 

| Dough Mixers 



Cake Mixers 
Cookie Cutters 
Sifters and 
Elevators 
Flour Hoppers 
Tempering Tanks 
Scales 
Etc. 




Reasonable 
Prices 

Terms to suit 

Ask our 

Representative 

or 

Write us 



THE TRIUMPH MANUFACTURING CO. 



3400 Spring Grove Avenue 



CINCINNATY, OHIO 



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VI 



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Armleder Baker Wagons 

Are the kind that keep 1 

out of repair shops and | 

make you forget that you 1 

ever had wagon troubles. 1 

They are built to wear and | 

do wear longer than any § 

other wagon made by | 

anyone anywhere. They 1 

| run light and are very attractive in appearance. They pay | 

1 for themselves by the new business they bring. | 

| Write for our catalog — It's free. | 

The O. Armleder Co. 

I CINCINNATI, OHIO ( 

n ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ i r ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ j i ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ i ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 iii ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 > i < ■ 1 1 c 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ j r 1 1 illinium mimm m mini? 

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kk 



ROYAL MAIL" 



Hard Wheat Patent 

"THE MOST SATISFACTORY 
AND ECONOMICAL FLOUR 

YOU CAN USE." :. :.. .-. .-. 

A Trial Shipment Will Prove It 



Lawrenceburg RollerMills Company 

LAWRENCEBURG, INDIANA 



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VIII 



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Petersen Ovens | 

"The Double Dutv Oven" 
Bakes Everything 




The PETERSEN Heating System insures absolutely uni- 
form baking qualities, combined with highest economy and 
finest results. The oven we sell you is a SUCCESS. "Ask 
the man who owns one." 

A good oven is not an expensive luxury. It is a downright 
necessity in economical production, and your success in the 
baking business requires a first-class oven. 

Be sure to investigate the Modern Petersen Oven when 
building. It is the first positive step toward securing the high- 
est degree of baking efficiency. 

SEND FOR CATALOG AND INFORMATION 



BUILT ONLY BY 



The Petersen Oven Company 

ESTABLISHED 1879 

112 W. Adams Street, Chicago, 111. 



Eastern Offices: 

Tribune Building • 

New York, N*. Y. 



Western Office: 

Pacific Building 
San Francisco, Cal. 



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IX 



£llllllllllllllll iiiiiimm ii mi imi 1 1) in in 1 1 i Milium Illlllllllllllllllllllllll iii mini mm in i n in in inn mininiiimiiniiiiiiiiiiiimilim 

Ballantine's 

Malt Extract 

THE f7C\ MEANS 

HIGHEST %£Sm BETTER 
GRADE T\Jp? BREAD 

| Depots in United States Depots in Canada 

New York Buffalo Montreal 

Philadelphia 
Chicago San Francisco Toronto Winnipeg s 

1 Send for Sample to 1 

P. BALLANTINE & SONS, Newark, N J. 

.YlllllltlllllllllllllllllllllMllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIItlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIT 
^'Illlllllllllllllllllllllll llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllK 

For Quality and Service 

| WILLIAM JUNKER CO. | 

Bakers 9 Supplies 



365 E. ILLINOIS ST. r«m™™ 

house "C" CHICAGO 



MllllllllllllllltlllllllllllllllllllllllUlllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illlllllllllll Illllllllll II Mil MM! 

X 




It's Cheaper To Use 
H&D 

Corrugated Fibre Shipping Boxes 

than it is to keep paying expressa&e on your return 
empties, and losses through strayed or broken 
baskets, boxes and crates. 

Another thing — bakers who are usin& H. & D. 
Corrugated Fibre Boxes save the expense of wrapping 
their bread and lining their boxes, because H. & D. 
Boxes seal up the g,oods and keep them fresh and clean. 

H. &*D. Boxes are shipped flat — easy to pack and 
seal. No more tracing lost crates, mending, broken 
boxes, or scrubbing dirty baskets — your troubles 
are ended when you send out your g,oods in H. & D. 
Boxes. Our customers know. 

The Hinde & Dauch Paper Company 

227 Water Street, Sandusky, Ohio 



XI 



^niiiiiiiiiniiii i 



ii nt n itini'ii i in i ii up ii nun m in mi ii ii ii ii mi ii mi hum 1 imiimiiiim 



Control Your Product 




by scientific methods — the only exact 
way. You cannot be sure of maintaining 
standards unless you examine all in- 
gredients microscopically. With one of 
the well-known 



HausctTfoin!* 

p^icroscopes 



you can be certain of your findings. | 

Our microscopes are backed by more 1 

than 60 years of optical research and | 

productive experience. They are relied f 

upon in most of the educational and in- | 

dustrial laboratories of America and § 

Microscope FTS8 many f the Old World. § 

Model FFS8 here illustrated, is one of the newer and most popular | 

1 instruments for laboratory work. It has a curved arm, providing ample ' | 

| space for object manipulation, and fine adjustment of our well-known | 

| lever type, with adjustment heads on either side of the arm. Base and | 

I arm have our attractive black crystal finish, which will not mar and is | 

1 more durable than the ordinary lacquer. | 

The optical equipment consists of two eyepieces, 5X and 10X; three | 

1 objectives, 16mm, 4mm and 1.9mm (oil immersion) in dust-proof, revolv- | 

| ing nosepiece, yielding 50, 100, 215, 430, 475 and 950 diameters magniiica- | 

1 tion; and an Abbe condenser, 1.20 N. A., in quick-acting, screw substage. 1 

| Price, in hard wood case with lock and key — $67.50. 1 

We also supply complete accessories and laboratory equipment. | 

| Write for catalog. • | 

I BauscK & \omb Optical (5. 

NEW YORK WASHINGTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO 

london ftocH ESTER,, N.Y. rRANKrott1 " 

1 Leading American Makers of Microscopes, Photomicrographic and Pro- § 

jection Apparatus (Balopticons) , Photographic and Ophthalmic | 

I Lenses, Binoculars and other High-Grade Optical Products. | 

= a 

SimilllNlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll i ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 > 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 n : 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 iiiil i 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 ill iiiiiiii IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIHIIIUIIIIUluS 

XII 



II Ill 1111 1 Ill Milium II Illl 11111111 I MIMM MINIMI MM Ill III MM II Mil Ml MM 



Laboratory Apparatus 




No. 3802K ANALYTICAL BALANCE 

| DISTINCTIVE FEATURES: — 

I Short beam of hard-rolled aluminum. 

1 Beam graduated in 50 divisions each side of center. 

| Spirit level in rear of base of column. 

Rear door can be raised or removed for weighing pipettes, etc. 

| Large drawer for weights. 

= Patented rider arrangement. 

| Separate pan arrest, stopper of which can be locked. 

| SPECIFICATIONS: — 

| Dimensions of case . . . . IG^xIOxQ y° inches. 

| Length of beam 6 inches. 

1 Diameter of pans 1V-> inches. 

= Width of bows 4 ^ inches. 

= Capacity 100 grams. 

| Sensibility l/10th milligram. 

| Weight of rider 5 milligrams. 

1 EQUIPMENT FURNISHED: — 

| One pair 3-inch watch glasses. 

1 Two 5-milligram riders. 

= Wood bench for specific gravity work. 

1 NET $54.00 

| CATALOG G of Apparatus for Baking, Milling and Grain Testing Laboratories 

| sent Free to Bakers and Millers on request. 

CENTRAL SCIENTIFIC COMPANY 

I 460 East Ohio Street 

| (Lake Shore Drive. Ohio and Ontario Sts.) 

| CHICAGO, U. S. A. 

TflJIIIIIlllllllll I lllllllllll llllllllll Ill llllllll 1 1 III IJ 1 1 II I Ml MM! MM Ill IMMIMMMIM Illlllll mill Mill I Mill Illlllllllll 

XIII 



mi minim I niMllllllll minim III ;;;mi III I imium nil 



lillllllllllllilim 



I WHEN YOU havelearned 

| all about the Maying of Bread — 

1 your next step is to learn How to 

1 SELL Bread to get business — 

I Let "Bill" Evans Put You RIGHT with a 

ISCHULZE 

ADVERTISING PLAN 

He Knows How!— You Only Guess! 

| More big successes are credited to the efficiency 

| of the Schulze Advertising Service, whether 

= it be bread or cake, than can be said of any 

= other service designed for the baker. Whether 

| you bake 500 or 500,000 loaves, there is a 

| Schulze plan designed to enable you to make 

| a material increase in sales at once — 10c. Sales I 

| We have demonstrated the PULLING- POWER 

| of Schulze Advertising Service to HUNDREDS 

| of BAKERS throughout the country — and they 

1 testify it's the BEST INVESTMENT THEY 

| EVER MADE. 

Would you like to bake any of these 

| brands of bread in your bakery? 

| BUTTER-NUT BUTTER-KRUST 

| BIG-DANDY PAN-DANDY 

| LUXURY BRAN-NUTRINE 

I LUXURY CAKE PRINCE HENRY RYE 



(All persons are warned not to imitate names, 
= labels or designs on above breads as they are 
| Registered in U. S. Patent Office.) 




-WILLIAM 
EVANS — to a 
regiment of 
Bakers the coun- 
try over irrever- 
ently known as ' 'Bill' ' 
— M a n a g e r Schulze 
Advertising Service — and every 
Baker who has watched that 
Service work must know that 
the William in question is right 
there with the goods. — [New 
South Baker.] 

Hundreds of 
Bakers Say So! 

When you tie up with a Schulze 
Advertising plan your advertis- 
ing worries are over. Our service 
includes everything necessary 
to the launching and conduct- 
ing of a campaign in your city, 
from the labels on the bread 
to the largest bill posters and 
novelties ; also snappy, up-to- 
date, result-bringing ideas that 
are distinctively individual. 



Just drop us a line and you will receive the return mail full of par- 
ticulars of just what the Schulze" Advertising Service is and what it can 
do for you — in building up your Bread Business. 




WILLIAM EVANS 

MANAGER 




IMlIrU/P 




76 W. MONROE ST. 
CHICAGO 



. 1 1 ' i; 1 1 ) 1 1 1 [ 1 1 ) 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ( 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 m 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 > 1 1 1 1 1 m i > 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 < iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiin iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiinii," 

XIV 



"""""""""""" I """ 1 " inimiiiii'.iiiiiiiumiii Illlllliiiiiii i iliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin , t 




IS THE 



Look for this Mark on all Bakery 

Machinery and Ovens 

you buy 



T IS the mark of quality and 
superior workmanship, a 
guarantee of the highest degree 
of efficiency and a warrenty of 
unfailing satisfaction in use 
and economy. 



Werner & Pfleiderer Co. 

Saginaw, Michigan 



"■ """ m " "" """„,„„„„„„„,„„,„„„„„ „„„,„„„„,„„„„„„„ ,,„ „,,„„ , IIIH1 , , 

xv 



;'iiiiiii mi inn nm in i mi i ii m m i minium mi mi 1 1 n mil mm mil mi I n mi i mug 

i 



Walter W.Ahlschlager 



-BAKERY- 
ARCHITECT 



1740-48 Conway Building 



CHICAGO, ILL. 



SCHULZE BAKING COMPANY, Chicago, Illinois 
WAGNER BAKING COMPANY, Detroit, Michigan 
GRANT BAKING COMPANY, Chicago, Illinois 
KALAMAZOO BREAD COMPANY, Kalamazoo, Michigan I 

LIVINGSTON BAKING COMPANY, Chicago, Illinois 

GRAND RAPIDS BREAD CO., Grand Rapids, Michigan 

i i 

i i 

■JimilUHmmiiiimmmiiiiiimmii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiuiiluijiiuiiiiujiiiuijiiiil miiiii iiiiiiMlllllllllllllllllllllllimiluillllllllluuiuiimuimmmv 

XYI 




XVII 



miiiiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiniuiiiiim n i m mil i iiui i i urn i m i i n iiiimiiiiiiiiiimiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii'' 



Corby Compressed Yeast Meets 
Every Requirement of the Baker 

Long since it has established the uniformity of its strength 
and purity, and is conceded to be the standard leavening force 
of the world. Made expressly for, and sold exclusively to, 
the baking trade. 

A trial is all that is needed to convince any baker of its 
superior quality ; and to place his product upon a changeless 
standard of -excellence. 




Roloco-TheTrue Bread Improver 

For more than a year we have challenged any baker or 
miller in the world to produce, with either sugar or malt ex- 
tract, bread the equal in volume, moisture and texture to that 
produced with Roloco. 

This challenge has never been accepted — because Eoloco is 
without parallel as a true dough-batch ingredient. 

AT YOUR SERVICE 



The Corby Company 



1 STATION K 



WASHINGTON, D. C. 



- i in i nun in in i i i in mi mini ill ill mi n mi mill 1 1!, i i n nun minimi in numm mm iimimmmi mum 

XVIII 



imiiiiiiiiiMiirliiitiiiiiifiiiiiriiirtiiiiiiiiinpiiiiiiirmmmiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiii 



iiimiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimmiiiiiiitiiiiuimiiiirf 



Send for our Catalogue of 
this Machine 




Champion Machinery 
Company 



JOLIET 



ILLINOIS 



r """ M " l " lmm " ""' niiimiiniii urn n iiiiiiiiiiiiimimiiiitmi mn ininiii „ ,„„„„„„„ „„„„,„„,„„„„ j 

XIX 



^> ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ > 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ ■ i m i a i ■ ■ i ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Miiriiuiii ruin i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiimiiiiiiii tllllllll mi inilllllllll I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii" 



A Real Guide 
to Better Baking 
and Better 
Business 




A Good Friend Who Calls Every Week 

A friend who counsels and advises, who tells you what to 
do and what not to do, who instructs you in the scientific 
end of baking, shows you how to increase your business and 
make greater profits by producing better goods — that 

describes 

BAKERS WEEKLY 

The foremost publication in the baking field. The best 
known writers in America contribute regularly to its col- 
umns. Original recipes, Question Box, latest baking news, 
association news, editorial comments, and highly valuable 
technical articles regularly appear in BAKERS WEEKLY. 

Send in your subscription at once— 52 copies a year— $2.00 
Sample copy gladly sent on request. 

BAKERS WEEKLY 



41 PARK ROW 



NEW YORK 



HiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiii;iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

XX 



llllllltllllllllt~ 



^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimTiiiiiiiirniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiitiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiii intiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiv 



Bakers Review 



FIRST CHOICE OF 
LEADING BAKERS 



A Big Monthly Journal Filled With 
Helpful Articles for Progressive Bakers 



Subscription, One Dollar a year 



WM. R. GREGORY CO., Publishers 



233 Broadway 
NEW YORK 



miiimiiiiiiiiii i iiiiiiiii iiiii iiiiii mi in inn uiiiuiuiiiiiiniiiiiiinti mi mini n i iimiiii inn inn i Iliillillllllllllllliliiiiw 

XXI 



iiiiiiiillllllllliliinil IIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIU 

I Advance Malt Products Go. ! 

I 305 S. La Salle Street CHICAGO 1 



SOLE MANUFACTURERS 
OF 




mLJ§ m\ I 
lYI U|_ ML 

m t ■ * m ■■§ WiUHl'lllii 



PURE MALTFLDUR 



The Only Guaranteed Rye and Graham 

Pure Malt Flour Bread Improver 



'mum mini m Illlliiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiii < u i i imc minium iiiiiiihp 

[i'limiiii mi mini mm mini miiimi iminiii i i n mi i mi mi nun mtiuiir. 

I Telegraphing Us To Come P. D. Q. | 

"If we were back where we were when the Estes Company started § 
| with us, and knew as much about their work as we know now, we I 
| would telegraph them to come P. D. Q." 1 

So writes one of our bakery clients who, a few years ago, was not in favor I 
| to efficiency service. - i 

And he adds: "We feel that the money paid the Estes Company was one of 1 
| the very best investments we ever made." 1 

1 | 

I Have You a Good Accounting System I 

r" Keeps Your Office Records Accurately and Up-To-Date? | 

| Gives You Your Monthly Profit or Loss? 

P JJ/\ \ \ Furnishes Costs on Your Various Products? 

j Provides You a Reliable Check on Use of Ingredients? 1 

[ Checks Your Bake Shop Employees and Your Salesmen? | 

If not, ESTES SERVICE will be a Highly 

Profitable Investment for you 1 

I L. V. ESTES, Inc., H^SHS? CHICAGO | 

Bookkeeping, Costs and General Efficiency for Bakeries | 

Illinium in iiiiiitiu him mi in t 1 1 ■ i ■ ■ j i ■ j i i nimiiu imimiiimmiii i mini iiiiiiiin mi mill miiin m.f 

XXII 



^lllllinilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllllllllll'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllllllR; 




EUREKA 




WHEAT CLEANING MACHINERY 

IS THE WORLD'S FIRST CHOICE 

It is said, "A man is known by the company he keeps." By the 
same token then, is it not also true that the worth of a product is 
shown by the kind of people who buy it .' 

ALL THE MORE PROMINENT MILLERS USE EUREKA GRAIN 
CLEANERS EXCLUSIVELY 




EUREKA DOUBLE WHEAT SCOURER-BRUSHER 

A Combination of Four Machines 

A copy of our new and very complete catalog will be mailed free of 
cost to all those interested in modern grain handling machinery. 



THE S. HOWES COMPANY 




Eureka Works 
SILVER CREEK, N. Y. 




-.minium mi mi 1 1 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiii? 

XXIII 



^'Illllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll I IIIIIIMIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIMIIIMIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIimilllllllllllllllllltlllllli: 

I Efficiency or Deficiency— 1 

Which ? 

JUST A FEW FACTS ABOUT 
PLANT DESIGN 

Your plant is a machine for manufacturing a product to 1 

| market at a profit. | 

Like other machines unless specially designed for this work | 

| your plant or building will not be efficient. 1 

Competition fixes the price of your product — hence every 1 

| dollar lost through plant deficiency is taken out of your profit. I 

| Any increase in selling prices to balance higher labor and \ 

| material costs will not solve the problem. There is only one \ 

1 solution. | 

| Is Your Plant Fully 

Satisfactory? 

As architects and efficiency engineers with special training \ 

1 and experience in the requirements of baking plants, our I 

| service has been selected by many of the most prominent con- I 

| cerns in the country to plan their new development or remodel 1 

1 work. | 

Why not write us about your building problem? 

| C. D. COOLEY COMPANY | 

Architects and Engineers 

| PITTSBURGH, PA. NEW YORK 1 

| Century Building 37 East 28th Street | 

I KANSAS CITY, MO. TORONTO, CAN. I 

I Waldheim Building 23 Jordan Street | 

^llllllllllliullllllllllllllllllllllllliuilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltllltlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillll i mmilniiiiif .? 

XXIV 



£.< < 1 1 1 i 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 ■ ■ i r 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ i 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 tit i 1 1 1 1 1 > 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 j 1 1 1 1 1 1 1^ 

| Bakery Cleaning | 

1 From very early history to the time of McCormack the world 1 

| contentedly reaped its grain with the cradle, and during an | 

| almost equal period of time soap and water were depended § 

| upon for cleanliness. But, as the reaper proved the inadequacy f 

| of the cradle, so the discovery of the germ of uncleanliness 1 

| proved that things may look clean and not be clean. | 

| The inadequacy of soap and water once proved, something 1 

1 better was demanded, and this demand found its answer in the I 

1 modern washing material. | 



This cleaner dissolves readily in water and is unexcelled as 
a water softener. It washes sanitarily clean with little work 
and no injury to the thing cleaned, or to the hands. It sweetens 
sourness and freshens staleness, and is an easy rinser. It does 
not make a suds so do not expect a suds. It is guaranteed to 
be and to do all we say or money refunded. 

Indian in Circle Wyandotte Sanitary Cleaner and Clean- 

ser is universally recommended by Dairy and 
Food Authorities. It numbers its users by 
the thousands and costs so little that no one 
can afford to be without it. Ask your regular 
suppty man, or for further information write 
In Every Package US. 

The J. B. Ford Co. 

Sole Mnfrs. 

Wyandotte, Mich. 

This Cleaner has been awarded the highest prize wherever 
exhibited. 

It Cleans Clean 




'lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltlllllltlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllNIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllIlllllllllllllllllllllllll 

XXV 



= " ■uiiiliiiiilimimillll 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 i ■ j ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ j ii j 1 1 1 ■ i ■ i ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 l i r ■ i r 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ j 1 1 i ■ i ■ i ■ 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 i ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 

DESPATCH 

ELECTRIC 

OVENS 

Built Right Since 190S 

For test baking, dough raising, wheat and flour drying, 1 

| display baking, and cereal sterilizing in mills, laboratories, | 

| and commercial bakeries. A standard line fully tried and = 

| proven. In use by all the largest flour manufacturers in the 1 

1 United States and Canada. Outfits for mills of all capacities. 1 

We design and construct efficient electrical- 1 

ly heated bakery ovens for commercial use. 
Many of these are in successful operation to- 
day; and can be built to bake up to 10,000 | 
loaves per oven on a 24-hour run. We shall be 
very glad to tell you about them. I 

Whether for commercial or laboratory use, and regardless I 

1 of your requirements, there is a DESPATCH appliance that I 

will fit your needs. Our products are in use today in hundreds f 

| of mill laboratories and bakeries, schools, hospitals, factories, 1 

| government experiment stations and commercial laboratories; 1 

| and consist of almost every conceivable form of electrically I 

1 heated equipment. J . , e 

| SEND FOR OUR CATALOG I 

Despatch Manufacturing Company I 

Electric Heating Exclusively 
MINNEAPOLIS .... MINNESOTA 

VlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllIlllllllllllllllHllllllllllllllllll'llllillllllllllllllllllmllllllllllllllllllll I mi Illlllllll mi iiiillllillin 

XXVI 



iiiiiiiiiMMimimiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiMii iiiiiiii'iiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiMiiiiiMiiiimiiiiiiniinii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiimmiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiir 




To assist in producing a loaf of 
bread with 

Food Value 

we suggest and recommend 

DIAMALT 



The American Diamalt Co. 



CINCINNATI, OHIO 



III1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I I~ 

mil i Illlllllilllllllllll in in mi ii n in in i n i n i n mi inn i in in mi ii l mil ill 1 1 n : i. mi 1 1, 1 1111:1: mi n 1 1 n i ii i in mi in in i ii i in mi iiiiiiiiii in i n iij: 



COLUMBIA PRINTING 
COMPANY 




PUBLISHERS 

PRINTERS 

CALENDARS 
BREAD LABELS OUR SPECIALTY 



1634-36 N. Halsted Street 
Telephone :: Lincoln 238 
CHICAGO U. S. A. 




** I III I II 1 1 II I II 1 1 II I III 1 1 -II 1 1 1 . 1 1 ) Ill Ill nil mi I I 1 1 u 11 >. : 1 11 .1 , < 1 1 -1 1 , 1 .1 11 1 m 1 1 n 1 1 ii mi 1 ill :-i 1 > 

XXVII 



1 s 

Bakers Pastry g 

Oleomargarine 

For Puff Paste Goods W 

^ Always ready for use, elimi- H 

W nating the long, tedious process jrj 

^J of preparation — never soft or T% 

Q smeary — requires no ice either \A 

fl\ summer or winter — never lumpy or ^ 

H rancid — never loses weight. rn 

Bakeall K| 

d Oleomargarine ^ 

j^s For Cakes, Pies, Cookies, Doughnuts E£ 

«^ and all classes of product other than CA 

feJ puff paste. \A 

fe*j It "creams"— is dry— very light salt. V\ 

lJ 12 ounces will do the work of 16 ^ 

^ ounces of butter or other shortening. \A 

qj Kakebake 

^ Oleomargarine ^ 

u^ adapted for fine cake work. Prepared P] 

W especially for the baking trade by Vja 

9a • n 

u Swilt & Company g 



XXVII] 



='"" "" ' »""""'»""H"»"'"ii"miniiiiMiiimiiiiiimiiiiiiiii i minnimii mini imin 



I I Mil I Illl 



Analytical - Consulting - Research 
Laboratories and Bureau 

for 

Bakers and Millers 



ANALYSIS OF BAKING AND MILLING 
MATERIALS 

EXPERT ADVICE ON EFFICIENCY AND 
IRREGULARITIES 

INSPECTION OF PLANTS AND REPORT 



Arrangements covering the above can be 
made by annual contracts 



I Siebel Institute of Technology 

960-962 MONTANA STREET 
I CHICAGO, U. S. A. 

5 "" ' U """"' '"" '" "" » ' ' '" ' vmmmmmmmmmmm „.„■„,„,_,■„„„„■, 

XXIX 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO ADVERTISERS. 

Page. 

Ahlschlager, Walter W XVI 

Advance Malt Products Co XX] I 

American Diamalt Co XXVPI 

American Oven & Machine Co I 

Armleder Co V 1 1 L 

Bakers Eeview XXI 

Bakers ' Weekly XX 

Ballantine, P. & Sons ' X 

Bausch & Lomb Optical Co .- . X 1 L 

( Vntral Scientific Co XIII 

Champion Machinery Co XIX 

Columbia Printing Co XXVI] 

Cooley Co., C. D XXIV 

Corby Co ■ XVIII 

Dispatch Manufacturing Co XXV 1 

Estes Co., L. V XXII 

Fleischmann Co II 

Ford Co., J. B XXV 

Hinde & Dauch Paper Co XI 

Howes Co., S. XXII] 

Hubbard Oven Co V 

Junker, William X 

Lawrenceburg Poller Mill Co V 1 1 1 

Malt Diastase Co IV 

Normalair Co IV 

Petersen Oven Co IX 

Eed Star Yeast Co VII 

ScV.ulze Advertising Service XIV 

Seidel, Ad. & Sons VI 

Siebel Institute of Technology XVII & XXI X 

Standard Oil Co Ill 

Swift & Company XXV] 1 1 

Triumph Manufacturing Co VI 

Werner & Pf leiderer Co XV 



XXX 



CLASSIFIED INDEX OF ADVERTISERS. 



Accountants. 
Estes, Co., L. V Chicago, 111. 

Advertising. 
Schulze Advertising Service .Chicago, 111. 

Architects. 

Ahlschlager, Walter, W Chicago, 111. 

Cooley Co., CD Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Automatic Outfits. 

Champion Machinery Company .Joliet, 111. 

Triumph Manufacturing Co Cincinnati, Ohio 

Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 

Baking Powder. 

Junker Co., William. The Chicago, 111. 

Seidel, Ad. & Sons Chicago, 111. 

Bakers' Supplies. 

Junker Co., William, The Chicago, 111. 

Seidel, Ad. & Sons Chicago, 111. 

Boxes, Shipping. 
Hinde & Dauch Paper Co Sandusky, Ohio 

Bread Improvers. 
Corby Company, The Washington, D. C. 

Cake Machines. 

Champion Machinery Company Joliet, 111. 

Triumph Manufacturing Co Cincinnati, Ohio 

Cleaners and Cleansers. 
Ford Co., J. B., The Wyandotte, Mich. 

Dividers, Bread and Rolls. 

Champion Machinery Company . .Joliet, 111. 

Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 

Dust-Collectors. 
Howes Co., S New York 

Electrical Ovens. 
Dispatch Manufacturing Co Minneapolis, Minn. 

Extracts and Colors. 

Junker Co., William, The Chicago, 111. 

Seidel, Ad. & Sons Chicago, 111. 

Flours. 
Lawrenceburg Roller Mills, The Lawrenceburg, Ind. 

Flour Blending and Sifting Outfits. 

Champion Machinery Co Joliet, 111. 

Triumph Manufacturing Co Cincinnati, Ohio 

Werner & Pfleiderer Company. Saginaw, Mich. 

Grain Cleaners. 
Howes Co., S New York 

Humidifiers. 
Normalair Company Winston-Salem, N. C. 

Instruments. 

Bausch & Lomb Optical Co • • . • Chicago, 111. 

Central Scientific Company. Chicago, 111. 

Labels. 

Columbia Printing Company Chicago, 111. 



XNXI 



Laboratories. 
Siebel Institute of Technology t Chicago III. 

Laboratory Equipments. 
Central Scientific Company . . . : Chicago 111. 

Malt Extracts and Products. 

Advance Malt Products Co , Chicago, 111. 

American Diamalt Company .' Cincinnati, Ohio 

Ballantine, P., & Sons . Newark, ' X. J. 

Malt-Diastase Company New York, X. Y. 

Microscopes. 
Bausch & Lomb Optical Company. Chicago. 111. 

Mixers. 

American Oven & Machine Co ". ■ . . .Chicago, 111. 

Champion Machinery Company Joliet, 111. 

Triumph Manufacturing Co Cincinnati, Ohio 

Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 

Moulders. 
Champion Machinery Company. Joliet, 111. 

Oils. 

Standard Oil Company Chicago, 111. 

Oleomargarine. 
Swift & Co Chicago, 111. 

Ovens. 

American Oven & Machine Co Chicago, 111. 

Dispatch Manufacturing Co Minneapolis, Minn. 

Hubbard Oven Company Chicago, 111. 

Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 

Proofing Boxes. 
Champion Machinery Company ..Joliet, 111. 

Pyrometers. 
Central Scientific Company. . Chicago. 111. 

■ Racks, etc. 

Champion Machinery Company .Joliet, 111. 

Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 

Rounding Up Machines. 

Champion Machinery Company Joliet, 111. 

Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 

Sack Cleaners. 
American Oven & Machinery Co Chicago, 111. 

Scales, Water and Flour. 

Champion Machinery Company. Joliet, 111. 

Triumph Manufacturing Company Cincinnati, Ohio 

Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 

Schools. 
Siebel Institute of Technology Chicago, 111. 

Trade Journals. 

Bakers Review Xew York 

Bakers Weekly Xew York 

Troughs. 

Champion Machinery Company Joliet, 111. 

Triumph Manufacturing Company Cincinnati, Ohio 

Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 

Wagons. 
Armleder Company, The Cincinnati, Ohio 

, Yeast. 

Corby Company, The Washington, D. C. 

Fleischmann Company, The Chicago, 111. 

Red Star Yeast Company, The Milwaukee, Wis. 



XXXII 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



014 578 514 5 





